PSYCH 250 EXAM #2

Children’s growth from 2 to 6 years

they become slimmer, more muscular

• growing over 3” and gaining 4 ½ lb/s per year

Typical 6-year olds weigh

40 - 50 lbs

typical 6 year olds is at least

3 ½ feet tall

just right phenomenon

a child’s insistence that a particular experience occur in the exact sequence and manner

• young children tend to be picky eaters who insist on rituals

• declines after age 3

by age 6, the brain is ____ of its adult weight

90%

speed of processing (i.e. myelination)

myelin - fatty coating on axons that speeds up transmission of nerve impulses

• social understanding develops as prefrontal cortex matures and emotional control improves

corpus callous myelinated rapidly from 2 - 6 years leading to more____

efficient communication between hemispheres

• children can now coordinate the two sides of the brain, and this their bodies

lateralization (“sidedness”) refers to ____

the specialization of certain functions by each side of the brain with one side dominant

handedness is partly genetic with ______ being left-handed

1 in 10

left-handed potential advantage

some professions involving creativity and split-second timing (e.g., artists, musicians, sports stars)

left side notices _____

• the details

• logical reasoning, detailed analysis, language

right side notices ___

• the big picture

• emotional and creative impulses - music, art, etc.

advances in maturation of the prefrontal cortex between 2 and 6 years include

• planning and thinking

• language

• social awareness

• attention and impulse control

• preservation

the limbic system is crucial for the expression and regulation of emotions

• amygdala

• hippocampus

• hypothalamus

gross motor skills in early childhood

• balance improves

  • run

  • jump

  • hop

  • gallop

  • skip

• greater speed and endurance

fine motor skills in early childhood

• self-help

  • dressing

  • eating

  • tying shoes

• drawing

artistic expression - first representational forms by age ___ and boundaries and people by ____

3; 2-3 years

pre operational thinking. gains in _____

symbolic thought

• make-believe play

• language

pre operational thinking. limitations in thinking

• centration (egocentrism)

• focus on appearance

• static reasoning

• irreversibility

centration

the tendency to focus (center) on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others

• ex: a child insists that their “daddy” is a father, not a brother

ego centrism

the inability to consider another person’s point of view - a form of centration

• does not equal selfishness

  • ex: a child comforts their sad father by giving him a teddy bear

focus on appearance

young children tend to focus only on what is apparent and ignore other relevant attributes

• ex: a child who thinks that a girl with a short haircut “must'“ be a boy; dimes vs. nickels (because a nickel should be more than a dime because of the size)

static reasoning

young children use static reasoning and assume the world is unchanging

• ex: a boy is surprised to learn that “their” teacher is also someone’s mother

irreversibility

the inability to mentally reverse a series of steps

• young children fail to recognize that reversing a process can sometimes restore to its original state

• ex: a child refuses to eat a hamburger that is “contaminated” by lettuce even after the lettuce is removed

conservation - physical traits of objects remain the same despite changes in appearance

children are NOT logical (at least about conservation) until age 7

egocentric thought

can adjust language to fit the level of the listener

can take others’ perspectives in simple situations

illogical thought

can think logically when the task is simplified and relevant to everyday life

categorization

able to organize everyday knowledge into nested categories

appearance vs. reality

can solve appearance-reality tasks in nonverbal ways or in “game-like” setting

theory of mind

a person’s theory of what other people might be thinking. this ability develops before age 4

Alison gopnik’s false-beliefs research

children understand that they can be tricked

example from the literature: Evans, Xu, and Lee (2011)

the study: 247 3 to 5 year olds left alone at a table with a cup covering lots of candy

the findings: 57% peeked under the cup. only ¼ told the truth (usually the younger ones) whereas the rest lied with increasing skill

• older children are better liars — better liars were also more advance in theory of mind

development of theory of mind is influcenced by

• maturation of prefrontal cortex

• language ability

• older siblings → younger learn perspective taking earlier than their older siblings

• culture

fast mapping

speedy and imprecise way in which children learn new words by mentally charting them into categories

• ex: a child has an “animal” category in mind. learning “tiger” is easy if they already know “lion”

over regularization

applying grammar rules even when exceptions occur

• he “goed” to the store

• “tooths, foots, sheets, and mouses”

initiative vs guilt

characterized by a new sense of purposefulness as the child takes on new tasks

emotional regulation develops

as a result of brain maturation and experience

• genes, culture, and gender also play a role

• ex: marshmallow test

Marshmallow Test Revisited - why are rich kids good at the test?

greater trust that waiting will actually lead to a reward/more reliable experiences with adults keeping promises/less exposure to scarcity

importance of play

children learn through play

play…

• changes between 2 and 6 years - it becomes more complex and social

• provides practice in self-control, empathy, and social understanding

types of play - solitary play

plays alone, unaware of other children playing nearby

types of play - onlooker play

watches other children play but does not join in

types of play - parallel play

plays alongside other children with similar toys or activities, but without interacting directly

types of play - associative play

interact and share, but not yet mutual or reciprocal (e.g. outdoor play)

types of play - cooperative play

play together with common goal or turn-taking

types of play - sociodramatic play

pretend play in which children act out self-created roles and themes

benefits of make-believe play

• learn social skills and cooperation

• develop self-concept in nonthreatening context (e.g. act out social roles)

• gains in language and communication skills

• improvements in attention, memory, and logical reasoning

• imagination and creativity

child-rearing styles -→ authoritative

• high warmth and acceptance

• high levels of communication

• moderate expectations for maturity

• authoritative strategies involve lots of discussion (i.e., firm but fair)

child-rearing styles -→ authoritarian style

• low warmth and acceptance

• one-way communication (parent → child)

• very high expectations for maturity

• high in coercive control (i.e., strict, often physical discipline strategies)

child-rearing styles -→ permissive style

• high levels of warmth and acceptance

• high levels of communicaiton

• few or no expectation for maturity

• little or no discipline

child-rearing styles -→ neglectful/uninvolved style

• low on acceptance and warmth

• little or no control

• general indifference regarding autonomy granting

s*x differences in gender typing

research suggests boys are more rigid in gender typing than girls

s*x differences in gender typing - examples

• verbally expressed preferences

  • boys are more likely to reject activities or toys considered typical of girls

• cross-s*x behavior

  • boys are less likely than girls to engage in activities traditionally associated with the opposite s*x

middle childhood

7 - 11

what causes obesity?

• overweight parents

• poor eating habits

• fast food and super sizing

lifelong health risks of obesity

• high blood pressure, cholesterol

• liver, gallbladder disease

• sleep, digestive disorders

• early death

obese children are _____ likely to be obese adults

5x

the stigma of obesity

• feeling unattractive

• teasing, social isolation, loneliness

• depression, emotional problems

• reduced life chances

flynn effect

average iq scores have increased over generations (over time), likely due to factors such as improved nutrition, education, healthcare, and environmental conditions

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

• linguistic

• logical-mathematical

• spatial

• intrapersonal

• naturalistic

• spiritual/existential

classification

ability to organize things into groups or categories according to some shared characteristic

• by the end of middle-childhood, there is a more sophisticated awareness of classification hierarchies

transitive inference

refers to the ability to infer an indirect relationship between two objects or people based on their relationships with a third

seriation

knowledge that things can be arranged in a logical series (number sequencing)

memory - sensory register

briefly holds incoming sensory information (sights, sounds, smells) for a fraction of a second

memory - working memory

current, conscious mental activity occurs; improves from middle childhood into adolescence increasing in capacity and efficiency

memory - long term memory

stores information for minutes, hours, days, months, years; unlimited capacity

speed of processing increases

during the first 2 decades of life

control processes

regulate the analysis and flow of information within the information processing system

• selective attention

• emotional regulation

• metacognition (thinking about thinking)

hidden curriculum

unofficial, unstated, or implicit values and assumptions within a school that influence what children learn

• examples: schedules, tracking, teacher characteristics, discipline, teaching methods

the challenge to achieve

• industry

  • developing a sense of competence and a willingness to achieve

  • fostered by adult expectations and a child’s drive for mastery

• inferiority

  • lack of confidence in own ability to do things well

  • family environment, teachers and peers contribute to negative feelings

the challenge of self-understanding

• competencies (NOT specific behaviors)

• fewer extreme all-or-none descriptions

• social comparisons

• ideal vs real self

• peers - as a reference group - become important

changes in self-esteem

declines (before rising after 4th grade) as children develop a more realistic sense of self

• academic

• social

• physical competence

• physical appearance

culture of children

refers to the habits, styles, values, and rules that set children apart from adult society

• peers offer sociability and a sense of belonging

• peers help shape definitions of self

• peers provide opportunities for learning

popular prosical children

at every age are well-liked because they are “kind, trustworthy, and cooperative”

popular aggressive children

who are “athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant, and aggressive” emerge around the 5th grade

aggressive-rejected children

are disliked because of their antagonistic, confrontational and often impulsive behavior

withdrawn-rejected children

are disliked because of their passive and socially awkward behavior

victims of bullying

tend to be withdrawn-rejected children with no friend to support them

most bullies are

not rejected. they tend to be high-status and powerful

“fall out” of divorce - short term

• instability and conflict; drop in family income

• parental stress and disorganization

• consequences affected by

  • age

  • temperament

  • sex

“fall out” of divorce - long term

• improved adjustment after 2 years

• boys and children with difficult temperaments at greater risk

• father’s involvement affects adjustment

blended families: the Brady bunch - mother-stepfather

• boys usually adjust quickly whereas girls adapt less favorably

• older children and teens of both sexes display more problems

• most conflicted = stepfather-stepdaughter relationship

blended families: the Brady bunch - father-stepmother

• often leads to reduced father-child contact

• children in fathers’ custody often react negatively

• girls and stepmothers slow to get along at first, more positive interaction later