15. The Chinese Civil War

Why was Civil War between the two sides seemingly inevitable?

• The Nationalists held a ;arge area in southern and central China, and the Communists controlled the countryside in northern and north-eastern China from their base in Yanan. As the Japanese retreated from the occupied territories in north and central China, both sides tried to occupy as much territory as they could.

• This was further complicated by the Soviet Union, which sent its Red Army into Manchuria in August 1945, trying to take control of that region.

Why was Chiang/The GMD in a stronger position before the outbreak of civil war?

Chiang was in the stronger position. The GMD was recognised as the real government in China, and the Americans insisted that the Japanese admit defeat to the GMD.

How did the Americans try to stop the outbreak of Civil War and how did it go wrong?

• The Americans persuaded both the Nationalists and the Communists to agree to stop fighting, as they were worried that the Soviet Union might exploit the divisions in China and expand their control into the region.

• However, when Chiang tried to set up a new government which gave almost total power to the GMD, the Communists left the talks.

When did the war break out?

• Fighting occurred after the talks, and by December 1945, both sides were at war.

• Hard to put an exact date on the Civil War specifically as there was no clear declaration

• However, by July 1946, it was clear that there was no chance of a negotiated agreement, and a major struggle for the control of China had begun.

What was the first stage of the Chinese Civil War?

• In the first stage, between July 1946 and May 1947, the GMD was initially successful. It captured a number of large cities in the north and established a route through to Manchuria. It was so successful that the Communists lost control of Yanan.

• However, the communist army, now renamed the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), developed successful guerrilla tactics and by May 1947, it had secured control of northern Manchuria. This significantly strengthened the Communists.

What was the second stage of the Chinese Civil War?

The second stage of the conflict occurred between May 1947 and November 1948. The PLA launched full-scale attacks on the GMD and switched to conventional warfare; the army pushed into central and western China, although it continued to enjoy victories in Manchuria in the north. The GMD became increasingly cut-off from the rest of China in its shrinking territory.

What was the third and final stage of the Chinese Civil War?

The third and final stage lasted from December 1948 until October 1949. The battles required great effort on both sides, but it was the Communists who enjoyed tremendous success.

What was the Huai-Hai Campaign?

• the most decisive campaign fought in the Civil War was the Huai-Hai campaign, bringing about the final stage of conflict

• Chiang had already lost control of northern China and he was determined to prevent communism spreading to the rest of China. He chose to make a stand at Xuzhou, a key site on the Longhai railway that linked central China to the GMD’s capital Nanjing and to the great port of Shanghai.

• However, the campaign was a disaster for Chiang. The strength of the PLA was strengthened by men who had abandoned Chiang’s NRA while the NRA lacked aircraft to protect its forces. In addition, as a result of Mao’s order to the PLA to destroy the area surrounding Xuzhou, the Nationalists did not have enough food to feed the NRA troops. The battle lasted for more than 2 months.

• Chiang refused to allow the leaders of his army units to retreat, which resulted in the loss of 200,000 men. They finally surrendered on 10 January 1949.

How was the Huai-Hai campaign essential to a communist victory?

• It broke the strength of the NRA and opened up central China to the Communists.

• Furthermore, from that point onwards the USA was not prepared to give any more funding to the GMD. It had already given more than US$3 billion, and believed that Chiang had wasted it. Without American aid, Chiang had little chance of defeating the Communists.

How did the war end up finishing up in 1949?

• By January 1949, the Communists had taken control of large areas of the north, including the capital city of Beijing. From there they moved south.

• By late September 1949, most of China was under communist rule. On 1 October 1949, in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, Mao declared the new government, the People’s Republic of China (PRC), with himself as its leader.

• Chiang fled to Taiwan and set up an alternative GMD government there.

What were the strengths of the communist military which led to success in the Civil War?

• Military Leadership: Mao was a skilled leader who gave the overall plan for the war and allowed his generals to provide the detailed strategy. Lin Biao was an outstanding military general for the PLA. He was particularly skilled in directing guerrilla warfare.

• Military Tactics: The PLA used a wide range of tactics which were adapted to the situation facing them. It used guerrilla warfare in the mountainous regions of China. Once the GMD had been weakened, the PLA was able to use conventional warfare in attacking the GMD in pitched battles in the cities.

• Quality of the troops: The PLA was a disciplined army that was motivated by its belief in communism. When it passed through villages, it treated the local population with respect. This developed support for communism and encouraged men to join the Reds and villagers to give supplies to the army.

What were the weaknesses of the GMD leadership that led to CCP victory in the Civil War?

• Military leadership: Chiang was a poor military leader who could not give authority to those with the necessary military skills.

• Military Tactics: The GMD made tactical errors, such as sending troops into Manchuria before they controlled the rest of north-eastern China. Manchuria proved to be a death trap for the GMD because it could not supply its troops. The GMD lost half a million men there.

• Quality of the troops: The NRA was a conscript army that was poorly supplied and cruelly treated. Poor treatment led to a high number of deaths and desertions, which reduced the strength of the army.

What were the political reasons the CCP won the Civil War?

• The strength of the CCP came firstly from its political unity. Mao’s leadership was unchallenged, and this created a secure chain of command that prevented disputes during the Civil War

• Furthermore, the involvement of local populations in committees to discuss reforms in the areas under communist control created a positive impression of what might be called a ‘democratic dictatorship’, in which government would be seen as acting for the benefit of the masses.

• This image was strengthened by the skilful use of propaganda. The CCP used posters as a means of spreading key messages, as well as relying on the PLA troops, who were indoctrinated with communist ideals, to win over local populations by treating peasants kindly.

What were political reasons the GMD lost the Civil War?

• By contrast, during the Sino–Japanese War and even more so during the Civil War, the political position of the GMD was weakening. The GMD government was corrupt and unskilled.

• Chiang had come to power promising to implement Sun Yat-sen’s ‘Three Principles of the People’, but this had not happened. Chiang had set up a dictatorship rather than a democracy, and had favoured the bankers, merchant and landlords rather than the mass of the population in the countryside.

• His local officials had abused their power and taken bribes. This meant that the GMD was never able to raise enough taxes to fund the government and introduce effective reforms. There was little political support left for the GMD by October 1949.

What were the economic and social reasons the CCP won the Civil War?

The economic and social strength of the CCP lay in its support from the peasants, the great mass of the population of China. Mao had been correct in seeing that Chinese communism could not be achieved by a concentration on the working class alone, as Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had advised him. A crucial element in securing the support of the peasants was the introduction of land reform in the countryside. During the Civil War, the CCP introduced land reforms that took away land from the richer peasantry and gave it to the poorer villagers. This often involved poorer peasants criticising their richer neighbours and frequently involved the use of violence. Furthermore, those peasants who took part in such actions had much to fear from a return of the GMD. They were committed to supporting the CCP because they risked the revenge of the landlords if the GMD took back the village.

The support of the middle classes was also important to the communist victory. They were important in the towns and cities. Many teachers, students and policemen were won over to the CCP as a result of its loyalty to China that it had demonstrated when it resisted the Japanese, which differed from the initial GMD policy of allowing the Japanese to take land.

What were the economic and social reasons that led to the failure of the GMD in Civil War?

The economic and social record of the GMD was poor. Chiang had printed money in order to finance his government. This had devalued the currency and led to high inflation, which destroyed the savings of the middle class, on whom he relied for support. Chiang introduced reforms to repair this damage, including reissuing the currency, so that the old currency, in which people had lost confidence, was withdrawn. He also introduced wage controls and new taxes. However, it was too little, too late and Chiang lost the support of the middle classes. This left him without a support base, because he had never seen the need to win over the peasants.