Bio 121 Miami University (Exam 2, Ortman)

Change in populations of organisms from generation to generation.

Evolution (biological)

Came up with the concept of natural selection as a way to explain the world's great variety of living organisms.

Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin

Accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species. Usually occurs when members of a species adapt to different environments.

Divergent Evolution

When two separate species adapt to similar environments and consequently develop similar traits and appearances.

Convergent evolution

Inherited traits that increase likelihood of survival are more readily passed on, thereby altering genetic makeup of future generations (evolution).

Natural selection

Organisms produce more offspring than can survive to adulthood, thereby increasing the chance of survival of the species by making a few extra.

Overproduction

Due to differences in genes, the environments in which genes are expressed, and the interactions between genes and environment

Variation

Traits that lead to better reproductive and survival success in a given environment are the characteristics which will evolve in a species.

Adaptation/adaptive trait

Selectively breeding animals with desired traits. Also true for plants.

Artificial selection

Variety of life across all levels, including the diversity of species, genes, populations, and communities.

Biological diversity

The process by which new species are generated

Speciation

Group of organisms that consist of similar individuals which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Species

A group of organisms of the same species which live in the same area and interbreed

Population

Species becomes separated into different areas in which they cannot reach each other to interbreed, thereby each population adapts to its specific environment and the genetic makeup changes them to the point that the two cannot interbreeding become separate species.

Allopatric speciation

Illustrates the history of life's divergence. Shows not only how groups of organisms arose, but also how they developed the traits that they did

Phylogenetic trees

Use an organism's genetic makeup and physical appearance to determine species identity, and rank these species according to evolutionary hierarchy

Taxonomists

Cumulative body of fossils worldwide that helps reveal the history of life on Earth.

Fossil record

Occurs through habitat loss either through deforestation, overpopulation, pollution, and global warming

Loss of biodiversity

Small populations, low genetic diversity, a species being endemic (species that occur in only one place on Earth), and a species being a specialist (a species that can only thrive on a limited range of environmental conditions and/or has a limited diet)

What increases vulnerability?

Earth has had 5 events that killed off massive amounts of species at once. The 6th mass extinction is upon us, however, this time the cause is humans.

Mass extinction events

scientific study of the interactions among organisms and the relationships between organisms and the environment

Ecology

Study the relationships at the higher levels of this hierarchy, namely at the levels of the organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, and biosphere.

Ecologists

An individual living thing

Organism

A group of individuals of a species that live in a particular area

Population

A set of populations of different species living together in a particular area

Community

A functional system consisting of a community, its nonliving environment, and the interactions between them

Ecosystem

A geographic region including an array of ecosystems

Landscape

The sum total of living things on Earth and the areas they inhabit

Biosphere

A specific environment in which an organism lives, including the living and nonliving elements

Habitat

The way in which an organism relates to its environment, its functional role in a community.

Niche

Tourism directed towards exotic, often threatened natural environments, especially to support conservation efforts.

Ecotourism

Decreases the efficiency of current population conservation efforts

Threat of climate change

Shows how invasive species and disease brought over first by Polynesians and later by Europeans affected the biodiversity of Hawaii's native plants and animals.

Hawaii's biodiversity (case study)

(negative-negative) organisms compete for limited resources

Competition

Competition between members of different species

Interspecific competition

Competition between members of the same species

Intraspecific competition

When species adapt to share resources (e.g., one bird species adapts to hunt at night while the other hunts during the day in order to minimize interference)

Resource partitioning

(positive-negative). Predation, parasitism, herbivory, etc.

Exploitative interactions

The influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution. Counter-adaptation occurs in a response to exploitation. e.g. the host adapts to protect itself from the parasite, but then the parasite adapts to counter this adaption against them.

Coevolution

The continuous adaptation and counter-adaptation

Evolutionary arms race

Threat of predation has caused prey to adapt better defenses against being eaten

Evolution of prey

Crypsis (camouflage), warning coloration, and mimicry

Mechanisms to avoid predation

Produce toxic or distasteful chemicals, arm themselves with thorns, spines, or irritating hairs.

Evolution of plants to avoid herbivory

The process by which members of one species hunt, capture, kill, and consume members of another species

Predation

Parasite exploits the host, harms it, but does not kill it

Parasitism

Animals feed on plants

Herbivory

(Positive-positive). Two or more species benefits from interacting with one another.

Mutualism

Mutualism in which the organisms involved are physically close. Grow/live together.

Symbiosis

Free-living organisms may encounter each other only once, but both parties benefit from that interaction as the bee/bird/bat/etc serve to carry pollen from the plant to another plant

Polination

Study of species interactions in the dynamics of communities.

Community ecology

Energy travels one way through, matter is recycled

Trophic levels

Primary producers of energy, 1st trophic level.

Producers (autotrophs)

Consume autotrophs

Consumers (heterotrophs)

Herbivores, consume the producers. 2nd trophic level. Deer or grasshoppers who feed on grass.

Primary consumers

Prey on primary consumers. Wolves who feed on the deer or rodents who feed on the grasshoppers. 3rd trophic level.

Secondary consumers

Prey on secondary consumers. Owls who feed on the rodents who feed on the grasshoppers. 4th trophic level.

Tertiary consumers

eat non-living organic matter/death things

Detrivores

Break down nonliving matter to smaller pieces that can then be consumed by plants.

Decomposers

Amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an ecosystem. As little as 10% of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost largely through metabolic processes as heat.

Energy throughout trophic levels

Numbers and biomass decrease the higher you travel up the trophic levels. E.g. 1000 grass, 100 grasshoppers, 10 chipmunks, 1 hawk. (10:1 ratio).

Numbers and biomass throughout trophic levels

A species with a strong, wide-reaching impact far out of proportion to their small abundance. Removal of one causes overpopulation of other species, causing the detriment of others.

Keystone species

Organisms that physically modify environments.

Ecosystem engineers

Organisms at high trophic levels promote organisms at lower trophic levels by keeping intermediate level species in check.

Trophic cascade

A community that resists change and remains stable despite disturbances

Resistance

A community that changes in response to disturbance but later returns to its original state.

Resilience

Follows a disturbance so severe that no vegetation or soil life remains from the community that had occupied the site

Primary succession

When a disturbance severely alters an existing community but does not destroy it altogether.

Secondary succession

Species that arrive first after primary succession and colonize the area

Pioneer species

The community that remains in place until another disaster destroys the area

Climax community

After a community is severely disturbed, the character of the community may drastically change. Can result in novel/no-analog communities, which are communities never before seen on Earth.

Phase/regime shift

Non-native species that establish communities and destroy existing ones

Invasive species

Species introduced to a new area by humans

Introduced species

Attempt to control populations through eradication, control, and prevention.

Response to invasive species

Research the history of conditions of communities which existed before the destruction of them before industrialization or civilization.

Restoration ecology

Temperature, precipitation, (climatographs are used to measure these things)

What are the determining factors for terrestrial biomes?

Eemperature, salinity, nutrients, waves, currents, depth, light, and substrate

What are the determining factors for aquatic biomes?

Experience fairly stable seasonal precipitation but varied seasonal temperatures.

Temperate deciduous forest

Experience seasonal temperature variation and too little precipitation for trees. Prairies.

Temperate grasslands

Experience a great deal of rainfall and have moist, mossy interiors.

Temperate rainforest

Constant warm temperatures, excessive rain, and a great deal of biodiversity

Tropical rainforest

Significant seasonal precipitation, relatively stable warm temperatures

Tropical dry forest

Slight seasonal variation in temperature but significant variation in rainfall

Savanna

Precipitation curve is significantly below the temperature curve. Hot, dry year round

Desert

High mountains at lower latitudes. Cold and dry

Tundra

Long cold winters, cool summers, and moderate precipitation.

Boreal forest

Seasonably variable, dominated by shrubs, influenced by marine weather, and dependent on fire.

Chaparral

Invasive species in Great Lakes, brought over by European boats. Bred very quickly without any natural predators. Damage and clog pipelines and boats, eat all of the phytoplankton (Great Lake's foundation for the food web), but they are slowly being depleted as predators adapt to their taste.

Zebra mussels in the Great Lakes (case study)

Our ability to produce food has grown faster than the global population

Rate of food production

Guarantee of safe, adequate, nutritious, and reliable food supply to all people at all times

Food security

Leads to unhealthy weight gain, causing other health problems

Over nutrition

A diet that lacks essential nutrients that the body needs, leading to health problems

Malnutrition

Lack of food.

Under nutrition

Land used for crops

Cropland

Land used for grazing animals

Rangeland

Farming using human and animal power

Traditional agriculture

Used in traditional agriculture, the practice of planting multiple types of crops on a small plot of land

Polyculture

Farming with machinery

Industrial agriculture

Planting vast areas with one type of crop.

Monocultures

Industrial agriculture has caused the need to preserve the genes of wild relatives of crops, that may one day need to be introduced to the genes of existing crops or to preserve these species as cross pollination between crops and wild plants alters them

Need for seed banks

Introduction of new technology, crop varieties, and farming practices to developing countries to drastically increase food production.

Green revolution