P/S Pankow

Appearence of prenatal reflexes in adults

Exist in infants and should disappear with age. Most primitive reflexes serve (or served, in earlier times) a protective role. They can reappear in certain nervous system disorders.

Auto-communication

Takes place whenever senders act as receivers of the messages that they are conveying

--Bats using echolocation

Anthropomorphism

Attributing human characteristics to non-human animals

--cats sleep with us because they love us not for warmth

--robot having consciousness

Pheromones

Animals communicate with chemical signals

--Chemical signals released by a species to trigger an innate response in another member of the species

--Often linked to mating, fighting, and communication

Dramaturgy

When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience

Random mating

All individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other

--large amount of genetic diversity

Assortative Mating

Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes tend to mate with each other

--Mate only with someone similar to you

Dis-assortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)

Non-random mating where individuals with different or diverse traits mate tend to mate with each other

--Mate only with someone different from you

Inclusive fitness

The number of offspring equivalents that an individual rears, rescues or otherwise supports through its behavior (regardless of who begets them), includes direct fitness and indirect fitness

--Direct fitness is when an individual behaves in ways that increase their own fitness

--Indirect fitness is when an individual behaves in ways that increase the fitness of others that carry the same genes

Evolutionary game theory

Those best fit to the environment will survive and pass on to offspring

--reproduction and environment

--Those genes will become more common in successive generations

--Predicts the availability of Resources and Social behavior

--Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players

--Decisions without conscious intent

Geographical proximity

Most powerful predictor of friendships and relationship

Mere exposure effect

Repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them

--More often we see something, the more often we like it

--Advertisements

Similarity bias

We will not befriend people different from us

Game Theory

Involves intention, and reasoning the behaviors of others

Perceived similarity

Thinking another person (often SO) is similar to them but they aren't actually similar

Projection bias

We assume others share the same beliefs we do

--everyone has the same beliefs as you

--cognitive and affective states

--Researchers imposing their own beliefs onto subjects

False consensus

We assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

--Everyone agrees with your opinion or action

Attachment

Bond between mother and child

--Harlow monkey experiments showed that attachment bias is due to comfort not food

--Harlow Monkey Experiments, the cloth mother acts as a secure base

--Once abnormal behavior was should, it could not be corrected

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Experiment done to try to understand why some kids have stranger anxiety and some don't

--Mothers sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment

--Mothers insensitive or unresponsive formed insecure attachments

Secure attachment

Child explored when mother was present, cried when she was gone, went to her when she returned

Insecure attachment

Child clung to mom when she was present, cried when she was gone, and continued to cry when she returned

--Even avoidant behaviors when she returned

Authoritarian parenting

Very strict, break will of child, punishment

--Demanding and parent centered (unsupportive)

--considered bad parenting

Authoritative parenting

Strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments

--Balance responsibility with rights of child

--demanding and child centered (supportive)

--considered good parenting

Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting

Non-directive and lenient, few behavioral expectations for child

--undemanding and child centered (supportive)

Reinforcement-modeling

Kids model their behavior based on reinforcement

--Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future

Social scripts

Instructions provided by society on how to act

--sets of behaviors for a specific interaction

Altruism

Caring about welfare of other people and acting to help them

--Beneficial to society and also individuals

Kin-selection

People act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin people

Reciprocal altruism

People are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future

--We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us

Cost signaling

Helping out others because you want to let them know you are a big deal/rich/have resources

--allows altruist to establish a "better than you reputation"

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Some people are altruistic due to empathy

Emotional support

Affection, love, trust, caring

--The type that involves listening and emphasizing

--Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back)

--Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends)

--"You are loved"

Esteem support

Expressions of confidence or encouragement

--Things people say to let you know they believe in you

--Can come from family and friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches

--"You can do it"

Informational support

Sharing information with us or giving us advice

--Can come from family/friends or even articles online

--"This is what you should do..."

Tangible/instrumental support

Financial support, material goods, or services

Companionship support

When someone engages in a behavior with an individual to give a sense of belonging

--Mere presence or sharing in an activity

Ascribed status

Status you can't change, given from birth

Achieved status

Status you earn yourself after working for it

Master status

Your dominating status over all your other statuses

Discrimination

Different treatment and harmful actions against minorities (BEHAVIOR taken on negative attitude)

--Individual discrimination: Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (teacher or coach)

--Institutional discrimination: Organization discriminating (government or school)

--Unintentional discrimination: How policies can discriminate unintentionally

--Side-effect discrimination: One institution, organization, or sector can influence another negatively (unfair trial leads to no job because of criminal record)

--Past-in-Present discrimination: How things done in the past, even if no longer allowed, can have consequences for people in the present

Prejudice

A negative ATTITUDE toward an entire category of people

--Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences

Utilitarian Organization

Members are paid or rewarded for their efforts

--job

Normative Organizations

Members come together through shared goals

--religious groups or MADD

Coercive organizations

Members don't have choice about membership

--prison

Bureaucracy

Rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations

--Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through rules, structures, and rankings

Bureaucratization

Process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy

Iron rule of Oligarchy

Any human organization will inevitably become controlled by a ruling elite, no matter how democratic it is in the start

Oligarchy

A small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution

McDonaldization

Policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations of society

--efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control

Structure of Organizations

Max Weber

5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the goal of the organization

Extrapolation of Karl Marx conflict theory

Max Weber's Division of Labor

People are trained to do specific tasks

Trained incapacity: workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture

Max Weber's Hierarchy of Organization

Each position is under supervision of higher authority

--Not all people of an organization are equal

Max Weber's Written Rules and Regulations

There are written rules and regulations

--Goal displacement: Rules become more important than goals of organization

Max Weber's Impersonality

How individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manners

Max Weber's Employment based on Technical Qualifications:

Hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications that the person has and not favoritism or personal rivalries

Macrosociology

Looking at big phenomena that affect big portions of population

--Social structures, institutions, and whole civilizations or populations

Functionalism

Society is in dynamic equilibrium and is adaptive

--Looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society, adapts to keep society stable and functioning

--Society is always trying to come to an equilibrium

--Each aspect of society has an intended and unintended function

--Problem with Functionalism: Focuses entirely on Institutions without regard for Individual

--Macrosociology

Conflict theory

Inequality between social classes and this social inequality will eventually lead to social change

--Social classes fighting each other

--Two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content

--Society evolves thru several stages: Feudalism → Capitalism → Socialism

--How society changes

--Macrosociology

Microsociology

Face to face interactions

--Families, schools, and social interactions

Symbolic interactionism

Focuses on individuals and significance they put on things in their lives; describes how individuals label things and change how they act towards things in response to societal labels

--Society is a byproduct of everyday interactions of individuals and looking at everyday behaviors helps us better understand and define deviance

--Explains social phenomena in terms of the meaning that they hold when people interact with one another

--How individuals act

--Microsociology

Conservative View of Institutions

Institutions are natural by-products of human nature

--Typically upholds traditional values and practices

Progressive View of Institutions

Institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful

--Emphasizes embracing change, being receptive to new ideas and promoting innovation

Hidden Curriculum

Learning normative cultural values, socialization, etc. through the educational system

--typically not explicitly expressed: LATENT

Ecclesia

Dominant religious organizations that includes most members of society

Modernization in terms of Religion

More info available to public and less emphasis on religion

Secularization

Weakening of social and political power of religious organizations

--Usually as religious involvement declines

Religious Fundamentalism

Religious movement whose objectives are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy

--Reaction to secularization

Communism

Classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by the community

Capitalism

Private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

Socialism

Motivated by what benefits society as a whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

Functionalist

Division of labor in government and economy

--Everyone is required to have responsibility in society

Sick Role

You're allowed to take a break if ill

Rights

--Exempt from normal social roles

--Lack of accountability for the illness

Obligations

--Must attempt to get well

--Must seek and comply with treatment

If obligations are not followed, you are deviant and harmful to society

Role strain vs. Role conflict vs. Role exit

Role strain: when multiple roles within a single status are competing

--When you can't carry out all obligations or roles of a status

Role conflict: when the roles of multiple statuses are incompatible

--one role from one status interferes with another role from another status

--Conflict between roles of two or more different statuses

Role exit: when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and process of establishing new identity

Illness experience

Process of being ill and how people cope with illness

Social epidemiology

Research that calls attention to the ways in which health and disease are conditioned in a social context

Social Facts

Ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed forever

Manifest functions

Obvious and intended consequences from social institutions or practices

--Attending college to get a good education that leads to better career opportunities

Latent functions

Unintended or unrecognized consequences from social institutions or practices

--Making lifelong friends from attending a college

Social dysfunction

Process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society

--Social instability

Small societies are held together by

Similarities

In large societies there is

Forced Mutual Interdependence

--People or things that are interdependent all depend on each other

Lower class united to create

Class consciousness

the Thesis

Existing generally accepted state

--The thesis was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor

the Antithesis

Reaction to the thesis, push-back from those unhappy with the status quo

the Synthesis

Thesis and Antithesis creating a new state

--Eventually becomes new thesis

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Expanded on Marx

Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest

--Cultural and Ethnic conflicts lead to dominant groups

Max Weber 3 independent factors

Class: person's economic position in a

society

Status: a person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a

society

Power: a person's ability to get his way despite the resistance of others (influence)

Social construct

A concept that everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value

--money

Social constructionism

Emphasizes how social interactions and language shape knowledge and explain what parts of the world are created by society

--What society is rather than how it exists or changes

--Everything is created from the mind of society

--How things are given value

--Facts are either brute or institutional

--Microsociology and Macrosociology

Weak social constructionism

Proposed that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are most basic and fundamental facts

--forces, particles, mountains, etc.

--Brute facts and institutional facts are a part of weak social constructionism

Institutional facts

Created by social conventions and rely on other facts

--Money depends on the paper we have given value

Strong social constructionism

Reality is dependent on language and social habits

--No facts that just exist

Feminist Theory

Focuses on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies, socially constructed via process of socialization

Gender differences

--Women subordination is viewed as inherent feature

Gender Inequality

--Oppressed, subordinated, and abused

Gender oppression

--Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism (Structural oppression)

--Macrosociology and Microsociology

Rational choice theory

People always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits to each other to gain most benefit; People are motivated by money and do what's best to get more goods

--Completeness: Every action can be ranked

--Transitivity: Transitive property (A>B>C, therefore A>C)

--Independence of irrelevant alternatives: Adding other options won't affect previous options rankings

(A>B>C, and B>X>C, therefore: A>B>X>C)

Social Exchange theory (stopped here)

People are rational and make decisions in social interactions that maximize benefit and minimize harm

--People behave with the goal of maximizing own rewards while minimizing punishments

--Addresses decision making via cost-benefit analysis

--Application of rational choice theory to social interactions

--Microsociology

Sexual selection

Natural selection arising through preference for one sex characteristics in individuals of the other sex

--Evolution leads to behavior

Social Selection

Individual's health can influence their social mobility and therefore status

--Behavior leads to evolution

--health → social mobility → status

Medicalization

Patient/Doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior

Culture

A way of life shared by a group of individuals

--all the shared products of a society

1) People share culture in society

2) Culture is adaptive

3) Culture builds on itself

4) Culture is transmitted