Pre Junior Cycle Final Examination 2027 (Geography)

Stages of the demographic transition model

High fluctuating stage
Early expanding stage
Late expanding stage
Low fluctuating stage
Senile stage

Factors of population change

Food supply
War
Technological development
Health
The place of women in society
Education

Food supply population decrease

When food supplies are low, such as crop failure and famine and leads to starvation. The great Irish famine caused people to die or emigrate, resulting in a population decrease.

Food supply population increase

Agricultural revolution brought more effective farming methods and life expectancy increased. Ireland has excellent food standards.

War population decrease

Many people of reproductive age are killed and war puts a strain on health services, food, sanitation and water. In World War II, it is suspected that between 35- 60 million people were killed. 

War population increase

After wars there tends to be a baby boom because many soldiers are of reproductive age and want to start families. There was a large baby boom in the US and UK after WWII.

Population pyramid

A diagram that shows the age and gender structure of a population

Purpose of a population pyramid

Helps governments plan for future services and needs

Wide base

Indicates high birth rates

Wide base countries

Sierra Leone, Tanzania

Reasons for wide base

Poor healthcare, high infant mortality, traditional roles for women

Consequences of wide base

Pressure on schools, childcare and future jobs

Stationary pyramid

Narrow base, wider middle, more elderly people

Stationary pyramid countries

Ireland, UK

Reasons for stationary pyramid

Good healthcare, education, family planning

Consequences of stationary pyramid

Need for pensions, healthcare and elderly services

Contracting pyramid

Narrow base and tall shape

Contracting pyramid countries

Japan, Germany

Reasons for contracting pyramid

Women choosing careers, high cost of living, urban lifestyles

Consequences of contracting pyramid

Labour shortages, need for immigration, ageing population

Migration

The movement of people from one place to another

Migrant

A person who moves from one place to another

Emigrant

A person who leaves a country to live somewhere else

Immigrant

A person who enters a country to live there

Refugee

A person forced to leave their country due to war, persecution or danger

Asylum seeker

A person who applies for protection in another country

Internal migration

Moving within the same country

International migration

Moving from one country to another

Push factor

A reason that forces people to leave an area

Pull factor

A reason that attracts people to a new area

Lack of job opportunities

Push factor

Lack of services

Push factor

Lack of safety

Push factor

High crime

Push factor

Crop failure

Push factor

Drought

Push factor

Flooding

Push factor

Poverty

Push factor

War

Push factor

Higher employment

Pull factor

More wealth

Pull factor

Better services

Pull factor

Good climate

Pull factor

Safer and less crime

Pull factor

Political stability

Pull factor

More fertile land

Pull factor

Lower risk from natural hazards

Pull factor

Economic migration

Moving to find work or better income

Social migration

Moving for better quality of life or to be near family

Political migration

Moving to escape war or persecution

Environmental migration

Moving due to natural disasters

Climate definition

The average condition of the weather over a period of 35 years across a large area of the world’s surface

Factors that influence world climate

Latitude
Distance from the sea
Prevailing winds
Ocean currents

Latitude

The Earth’s oblate shape means the sun’s rays don’t warm its surface evenly. Because the sun’s rays strike directly at the equator, their energy is concentrated on a smaller area, creating more heat. Farther from the equator, the rays hit at a slant, spreading the same energy over a wider area, so temperatures are cooler.

Distance from sea

The sea keeps nearby land milder in winter and cooler in summer.
Inland areas, farther from the sea, get colder winters, hotter summers, and therefore have a larger temperature range.

Aspect

South‑facing slopes get more sunlight and are warmer, while north‑facing slopes get less sunlight and are colder in the northern hemisphere.

Altitude

Altitude is the height above sea level, and higher places are colder because the air becomes thinner and cannot hold heat as well. Temperature drops by about 7°C for every 1,000 meters gained in height. Upland areas are windier and therefore cooler, and they also get more precipitation because cooler air holds less water vapour.

Name hot climates

Tropical, Hot Desert, Savanna

Name Temperate climates

Warm temperate oceanic, Cool temperate oceanic

Name cold climates

Boreal, tundra

Where are hot deserts found?

15-30 degrees north and south of the equator

Hot Desert temperature

Hot deserts have very high daytime temperatures (30–50°C) but much cooler nights (around 5°C). This big difference is called the diurnal range. Because deserts are in the tropics, the sun is high in the sky and cloudless skies allow long hours of intense sunshine. At night, the lack of clouds and vegetation means heat escapes quickly, so temperatures drop sharply.

Hot desert precipitation

Hot deserts get under 200 mm a year of precipitation which leads to long droughts. They lie in the path of trade winds that warm up and become dry as they move toward the equator. Some deserts are also affected by winds passing over cold ocean currents; these winds lose their moisture over the sea before reaching land, leaving the desert extremely dry.

How cactuses adapt to hot desert

Thick skin and needles reduce the need for moisture

How joshua trees adapt to their climate

juicy flesh that stores water

Animals that live in hot desert climate

desert fox, rattlesnake, jack rabbit, camel

How rattlesnakes adapt to hot desert climate

they get moisture from creatures they eat.

How jack rabbits adapt to hot desert climate

Long ears lose body heat, keeping the rabbit cool. 

Desertification

Turning land into desert e.g. Sahel region

Climate factors of desertification

Climate change over the past 30 years has made weather patterns less predictable. Rainfall has become unreliable, temperatures have risen, and higher heat leads to more evaporation and less condensation. With less moisture returning as rain, droughts become more common, causing rivers and water holes to dry up.

Human factors of desertification

Sub‑Saharan countries have fast‑growing populations and rising food demand. Large herds of cattle and goats cause overgrazing, and poor farming methods strip nutrients from the soil. Cutting trees and shrubs for fuel leads to deforestation, worsening the problem.

Impacts of desertification

Severe food shortages in Sudan and Ethiopia have caused major loss of life and forced people to migrate, with many ending up in refugee camps.
People leave rural areas for cities, leading to overcrowded slums and the decline of small towns and villages.
Agricultural land becomes unusable, resulting in reduced crop production and the loss of livestock.

Solutions to desertification

Planting trees: this will slow down the erosion of the soils as the roots bind the soils together. 

Planting grass: This grass must be resistant to drought and again will bind the soils together. 

Invest in irrigation: They must dig deep wells to source water and irrigate the land. 

Educate farmers: Farmers must be educated in new farming methods to protect the land from desertification. 

Deforestation

cutting down of trees withhout replanting them.

Two causes of deforestation

Commercial logging: Trees are cut down for timber, paper, and furniture, reducing forest cover.

Agricultural expansion: Forests are cleared to create farmland for crops or grazing animals.

Solutions to deforestation

Replanting trees (reforestation): Planting new trees to replace those that were cut down helps restore forest cover.
Sustainable logging: Only cutting a limited number of trees and allowing forests time to regrow.
Protected areas: Creating national parks and reserves where no cutting is allowed.
Agroforestry: Growing crops and trees together so farmers don’t need to clear new forest land.

Impact of deforestation

Rainforest ecosystems are interconnected, so removing one part harms the whole system. This causes species to decline or even go extinct. Deforestation also reduces soil fertility and increases erosion.

Name a cold climatethat you have studied in detail

Boreal

Where is the boreal climate located?

55 degrees north of the equator

Boreal climate temperature

Summer is short but has long daylight hours with temperatures around 10–15°C because the northern hemisphere tilts toward the sun, while winter is very cold with long periods of darkness and temperatures dropping to about –25°C as the hemisphere tilts away from the sun.

How bears adapt to boreal climate

They hibernate to avoid the stress of the winter.

How do Canadian geese adapt to the boreal climate?

They migrate south for the winter

How do the coniferous trees adapt to boreal climate?

The needles prevent moisture loss, thick bark protects from cold winds and pine cones protect the seeds during winter.

Atmosphere

A thin layer of gases around Earth that insulates the planet and protects it from harmful rays

Two layers of the atmosphere

Troposphere and Stratosphere

Composition of the atmosphere

78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% trace gases

Trace gases

Gases found in tiny amounts such as carbon dioxide

Shape of the Earth

An oblate sphere (wider at the equator)

Ireland’s prevailing wind

South‑westerly winds

Warm ocean current affecting Ireland

North Atlantic Drift (warm)

Example of a cold ocean current

Labrador Current

Polar maritime air mass

Cold, wet air bringing showers

Arctic air mass

Very cold weather

Polar continental air mass

Dry, cold, frosty nights and heavy snow in winter

Tropical continental air mass

Hot, dry, sunny weather

Tropical maritime air mass

Mild, moist air bringing rain all year

Types of rainfall

Convectional, Cyclonic, Relief

Why the west gets more rain than the east

Moist Atlantic air rises over mountains, cools and drops rain on the windward side

Uneven heating of the Earth

Sun’s rays are direct at the equator and slanted at the poles

Anticyclone

High pressure, clockwise winds, spaced isobars, dry settled weather