NSG530 Exam 1-4 Questions and Verified Detailed Answers; for Guaranteed Success -Wilkes University

Pyelonephritis

inflammation of the renal pelvis and the kidney

Chronic Pyelonephritis

Interstitial fibrosis and atrophy of tubules due to multiple bouts of acute pyelonephritis

Can be associated with chronic UTI's, vesicoureteral reflux, or kidney stones

Cystitis

Inflammation of the bladder

Common pathogens are E. Coli and staphylococcus saphrophyticus

Symptoms of cystitis

Frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower back pain

Renal cell carcinoma

cancerous tumor that arises from kidney tubule cells

Renal adenoma

small, slow-growing glandular noncancerous tumor of the kidney

Renal transitional cell carcinoma

rare and primarily arises in the renal parenchyma and renal pelvis.

Transitional cell carcinoma

a malignant tumor of the urinary tract that is often found within the urinary bladder or within the renal pelvis. Generally occurs in older men. Gross painless hematuria

Gomerulonephritis

inflammation of the glomeruli within the kidney

Primary glomerulonephritis

inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that occurs independently of other chronic conditions; usually the result of an acute infectious process

secondary glomerulonephritis

inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that results from other chronic conditions, such as lupus erythematosus or diabetes.

Symptoms of glomerulonephritis

Hematuria with red blood cell casts, proteinuria with albumin, oliguria, HTN, edema, nephrotic sediment

Types of glomerulonephritis

- membranous nephropathy/ glomerulonephritis

- rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis

-Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease (goodpasture syndrome)

- chronic glomerulonephritis

-diabetic neuropathy

Nephrotic syndrome

loss of large amounts of plasma protein, usually albumin, through urine due to an increased permeability of the glomerular membrane

Causes of nephrotic syndrome

Membranous glomerulonephritis

Minimal change nephropathy

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis

-systemic disease such as diabetes or lupus

Hypospadias

congenital abnormality in which the male urethral opening is on the undersurface of the penis, instead of at its tip

Epispadias

Opening of the urethra on the superior surface of the penis

Chordee

a downward curvature of the penis, often associated with hypospadias

Nephroblastoma (Wilms tumor)

A rapidly developing malignancy of the kidneys, usually affecting children before age 5. Normally found by parents due to swelling.

PCOS diagnosis

Have to have two of the following:

-Irregular ovulation

-Elevated levels of androgen

-Polycystic ovaries on ultrasound

PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome)

An endocrine disorder associated with chronic anovulation, most common in young women (teens to twenties). High LH/FSH ratio in blood; A hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges.

Chlamydia

A bacterial infection that affects the reproductive organs of both males and females. Can cause permanent damage to a woman's reproductive system. Can also cause ectopic pregnancy.

Symptoms of Chlamydia

urethritis; penile and vaginal discharges; abdominal, rectal, or testicular pain; painful intercourse; irregular menses

Syphilis

an STD that attacks many parts of the body and is caused by a small bacterium called a spirochete. 3 phases

Primary stage of syphilis

the first few weeks of a syphilis infection during which the chancre is present and can be present on the mouth, penis, vagina, anus

secondary stage of syphilis

Skin rashes and/or sores in the mouth, vagina, or anus. A rash that appears on the soles of the feet or palms. Fever, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat, patchy hair loss, headaches, weight loss, muscle aches, fatigue

Latent syphilis

the third stage of syphilis, which may last for years, during which symptoms disappear although the person is still infected

Tertiary syphilis

Damages internal organs and can result in death if not treated

Ghonnorea

Infects the mucus membrane of the reproductive tract including the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes in women. The urethra can be affected in women and men

Ghonnorea symptoms

Discharge, dysuria, unusual sores, or rash

Trichomoniasis

an STD caused by a microscopic protozoan that results in infections of the vagina, urethra, and bladder

Trichomoniasis symptoms

Itching, burning, redness, sores, dysuria, clear, white yellow, or green vaginal discharge with a fishy smell

Vaginal candidiasis

a vaginal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans; also known as a yeast infection.

Vaginal Candidiasis symptoms

Itching, soreness, dyspareunia, dysuria, abnormal vaginal discharge (thick, white)

Bacterial vaginosis

An overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina; characterized by itching, burning, or pain, and possibly a "fishy" smelling discharge.

Ovarian cysts

collections of fluid within a sac (cyst) in the ovary

Follicular cysts

transient condition in which the dominant follicle fails to rupture

corpus leutum cyst

Highly vascularized cysts formed by the granulosa cells left behind after ovulation

Can rupture and cause hemorrhage

Dermoid cyst

ovarian teratomas that contain elements of all three germ layers. Have malignant potential

Cervical cancer

Malignant cell growth in the cervix; can be caused by HPV virus. Normal cervical cells change to dysplasia to carcinoma in situ and eventually invasive cancer. Predominantly asymptomatic

Vulvar cancer

-Usually squamous cell carcinoma

-Associated with HPV, increasing age, previous cancer, autoimmune conditions, and immunosuppression

Endometrial cancer

malignant tumor of the endometrium (also called uterine cancer). Primary risk factor is unopposed estrogen exposure (without progesterone). Manifested by abnormal vaginal bleeding.

Ovarian cancer

malignant tumor of the ovary. Usually no early symptoms

Paraphimosis

condition in which a retracted foreskin cannot be pulled forward to cover the glans

Phimosis

Inability to retract foreskin. Frequently caused by poor hygiene

Peyronie's disease

"Bent nail syndrome". Slow development of fibrous plaques in the erectile tissue of the corpus cavernosa, causing lateral curvature of the penis during erection

Priapism

Prolonged erection. Urologic emergency. Have to drain blood from the penis.

Balantitis

Inflammation of the glans penis. Accumulation under the foreskin can irritate the glans and lead to infection.

Category 1 prostatitis

-acute bacterial prostatitis

-Ascending infection of the urinary tract

-infection stimulates an inflammatory response in which the prostate becomes enlarged, tender, firm, or boggy

Category 2 prostatitis

chronic bacterial prostatitis. Recurrent urinary tract symptoms and persistence of pathogenic bacteria in urine or prostatic fluid. Prostate may be fibrotic from frequent infection.

Category 3 prostatitis

chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain. No pathogenic bacteria can be localized to the prostate.

-category 3a- chronic pelvic pain syndrome with WBC count elevated and localized to prostate

-category 3b- noninflammatory

Category 4 prostatitis

Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. There is an increase in bacteria and WBC localized to the prostate.

GERD

Reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus

GERD symptoms

-Heartburn 30-60 minutes after meals with reclining

-Relief with antacids

-Regurgitation/reflux

-Dysphagia

-Asthma

-Cough

-Laryngitis

-Sore throat

-Chest pain

Hiatal hernia

A condition in which a portion of the stomach protrudes upward into the chest, through an opening in the diaphragm.

Peptic Ulcer Disease

A break or ulceration in the protective mucosal lining of the lower esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.

-superficial: Erosions

Duodenal ulcers

Ulcers of the small intestine caused by NSAIDs and Helicobacter pylori infection. Characterized by intermittent pain in the epigastric area

-relieved rapidly by ingestion of foods or antacids

Ulcerative colitis

a chronic condition of unknown cause in which repeated episodes of inflammation in the rectum and large intestine cause ulcers and irritation.

Symptoms of ulcerative colitis

hematochezia, diarrhea with mucus/pus, tenesmus, rectal urgency

Chron's disease

A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects the lining of the digestive tract. Skip lesions. Ulcerations that can cause fissures that extend into the lymphatics. Anemia may result from the malabsorption of B vitamins and folic acid.

Celiac disease

Gluten causes inflammation in the small intestine which leads to malabsorption and decreased functionality. Bloating, chronic diarrhea, constipation, gas, loose stools, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain

Pancreatitis

Inflammation of the pancreas. Develops due to an obstruction of the outflow of pancreatic enzymes caused by bile and pancreatic duct obstruction

Acute pancreatitis

May result from drugs, cellular injury from alcohol, or viral infection

-epigastric or midabdominal constant pain

Chronic pancreatitis

Process of progressive fibrotic destruction of the pancreas

Related to chronic alcohol abuse

Continuous or intermittent abdominal pain and weight loss are common

Risk factor for pancreatic cancer

Cirrhosis

irreversible, chronic, progressive degeneration of liver w/fibrosis. s/s: fatigue, hepatomegaly, RUQ pain, jaundice, steatorrhea, clay-colored stools, ascities, hepatic encephalopathy. Rx: steroids, vit B.

Alcoholic liver disease

A degenerative liver condition that occurs in three stages: (1) fatty liver, (2) alcoholic hepatitis, and (3) cirrhosis.

Portal hypertension

Elevation of blood pressure within the portal venous system.

Esophageal varices

Enlarged and swollen veins at the lower end of the esophagus caused by portal hypertension. Rupture leads to hemorrhage. Vomiting leads to large amounts of blood, black or tarry stools, lightheadedness, loss of consciousness

Hepatic encephalopathy

Cells in the nervous system are vulnerable to neurotoxins absorbed by the GI tract that, because of liver dysfunction, circulate to the brain. s/s: change in LOC, memory loss, asterixis (flapping tremor) impaired handwriting, hyperventilation w/ resp alkalosis. Rx: lactulose, low protein, safety, rest

Biliary atresia

Congenital absence of the opening from the common bile duct into small intestine (duodenum). Plugging, inflammation, and fibrosis of the bile ducts and cholestasis. Jaundice is the primary symptom. Liver-transplant for long-term therapy.

Pyloric stenosis

Narrowing of the opening of the stomach to the duodenum. Forceful and nonbilious vomiting immediately after feeding. Vomiting causes weight loss, electrolyte imbalance, and dehydration. Hypertonic pylorus is palpable in RUQ.

Intussusception

Telescoping of a segment of the intestine into a distal segment, causing an obstruction. Causes bleeding, necrosis, and bowel perforation, if not treated. Abdominal pain, irritability, vomiting, and "current jelly-like stools". Reduction with enema and possible correction with surgery.

Diverticula

A sac-like outpouching of the wall of the small intestine that is present in some children at birth. Painless rectal bleeding or the diverticulum becomes infected.

Interphase

cell feeds, metabolizes and grows while replicating DNA in preparation for mitosis

Prophase

first appearance of chromosomes (will be 92)

Metaphase

Centrioles pull chromosomes to opposite sides of cell (chromatid) - 46 each side

Anaphase

Centromeres split and sister chromatids are pulled apart

Telophase

New nuclear membrane formed around each group of 46 chromosomes *When it goes right, euploid cells are produced*

Nondisjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.

Polyploidy

condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes

Triploidy

when an organism has three copies of every chromsome instead of two

Tetrapoloidy

euploid has 92 chromosomes and fetus usually does not survive

Huntington's disease

Single gene disorder (trinucleotide repeat mutation)

Autosomal dominant (50% chance of passing it on)

Progressive neurologic disease with late onset (40s)

Prevention- genetic testing for pregnancy planning

Cystic fibrosis

Single gene disorder (CFTR gene mutation)

Autosomal recessive

Most common in white children

Defective transport of chloride ions cause salt imbalance- thickened secretions, digestive issues, malnutrition. Males and females

Must inherit two copies of gene (1 from each parent)

Turner syndrome

XO chromosomal disorder, monosomy of X-affects females

Short stature, webbed neck, undeveloped breasts but female genitalia, usually sterile

Down syndrome

Chromosomal disorder, trisomy 21

Affects both sexes

Intellectual disability, poor muscle tone, low nasal bridge, low set ears, protruding tongue, epicanthal fold

Fragile X syndrome

Chromosomal disorder (break in long arm of X)

Higher prevalence in males

Intellectual disability

Klinefelter syndrome

(XXY) chromosomal disorder 1:1000 male births

Male appearance, sparse body hair, mild intellectual disability

Atrophy

Decrease in cell size

"When cast is removed from left calf, it is smaller than the right calf"

Hypertrophy

Increase in cell size

"Captain of roller derby team has greater thigh diameter at the end of the season than at the beginning of the season"

Hyperplasia

Increase in cell number

"Lining of uterus thickens after ovulation because of increased amounts of estrogen"

"Liver regenerates after surgical removal of damaged portion"

Metaplasia

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another, less mature cell type or change in cell phenotype

"Columnar epithelium in bronchi of cigarette smoker is replaced by stratified squamous epithelium after smoking cessation"

Dysplasia

Deranged cellular growth, is not considered a true cellular adaption but rather atypical hyperplasia

"Cells of the cervix can be classified on PAP as high grade or low grade depending on how abnormal the cells have become in size and shape"

What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia?

Hypertrophy (a form of anabolism) increases tissue mass by keeping the same number of cells and making each individual cell larger, but hyperplasia increases tissue mass by increasing the number of cells

What is suffocation?

Occurs when oxygen fails to reach the blood. It can be caused by lack of O2 in environment (such as with carbon monoxide poisoning) or a blockage of the airway (choking).

CO Poisoning

CO has easier time binding to Hgb thus decreasing O2 binding causing sleepiness, headache, nausea, vomiting, weakness

Dehydration

Reduction in bodily fluids

Symptoms- headache, thirst, fatigue, dry mucous membranes, lightheadedness

Elderly and infants more susceptible to low total body water

Why are geriatric patients susceptible to dehydration?

Lower total body muscle and fat mass

Why are infants susceptible to dehydration?

Higher metabolic rate and greater body surface area

Edema

Contributes to intracellular dehydration as fluid collects in extracellular areas due to osmosis