AP Psychology Unit 2: Memory

What is memory?

Learning that has persisted over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall

Retrieving information not currently in your conscious awareness.

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned, such as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second time.

Encoding

The process of getting information into our brain.

Storage

Retaining information in memory for later use.

Retrieval

Recovering stored information so we are consciously aware of it.

Parallel Processing

Processing many things simultaneously, unlike computers which process sequentially.

Connectionism

The view that memories are products of interconnected neural networks.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Stage Theory

Sensory memory flows to short-term memory (via rehearsal) and then to long-term memory.

Baddeley's Central Executive

The part of working memory that coordinates processing like a line manager.

Phonological Loop

The working memory component that holds auditory and verbal information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The working memory component that remembers visual and spatial information.

Neurogenesis

The formation of neural interconnections as learning alters the brain.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting increase in a nerve cell's firing power after brief, rapid stimulation.

Neural Basis of Learning

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) serving as the basis for remembering associations.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information without awareness.

Implicit Memories

Nondeclarative memories and skills handled by the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Automatic Processing Types

Space, time, and frequency.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Explicit Memories

Declarative facts and experiences handled by the frontal lobes and hippocampus.

Sensory Memory

Fleeting memory that feeds active working memory.

Iconic Memory

Fleeting visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Fleeting auditory sensory memory that echoes for 3 to 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory Capacity

George Miller's Magic 7 (plus or minus 2) items.

Working Memory Capacity

Varies with age; young adults have greater capacity to juggle multiple items.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units for easier recall.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad categories subdivided into narrower concepts.

Spacing Effect

Retaining information better when practice is spread out over time.

Massed Practice

Cramming, which leads to speedy short-term learning and quick forgetting.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Shallow Processing

Encoding on an elementary level (structural/letters) or intermediate level (phonemic/sound).

Deep Processing

Encoding semantically based on the meaning of words.

Self-Reference Effect

Tendency to recall information better when we relate it personally to ourselves.

Explicit Memory Brain Structures

Frontal lobes and hippocampus.

Implicit Memory Brain Structures

Cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Frontal Lobes and Memory

Process working memory, with left handling verbal info and right handling visual info.

Hippocampus

Acts as the temporary save button or loading dock for explicit memories.

Memory Consolidation

The storage shift from the hippocampus to long-term memory, supported by deep sleep.

Cerebellum and Memory

Stores implicit memories formed by classical conditioning.

Basal Ganglia and Memory

Controls motor movement and facilitates procedural memories for skills.

Stress and the Amygdala

Stress triggers hormones that provoke the amygdala to initiate memory traces.

Tunnel Vision Memory

High emotions focusing attention on priority details while ignoring irrelevant ones.

Flashbulb Memory

A clear, vivid snapshot of an emotionally significant or shocking event.

Retrieval Cues

Hints in a web of associations that trigger memory retrieval.

Retrospective Memory

Accessing memories from the past.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform intended future actions.

Priming

The unconscious activation of particular associations in memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Specific cues and contexts active during encoding most effectively trigger that memory later.

Context Effects

Putting yourself back in the physical context where you learned something to aid retrieval.

State-Dependent Memory

Enhanced recall when in the same physical or mental state as when encoded.

Mood Congruence

Tendency to recall experiences consistent with your current good or bad mood.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list due to more rehearsal.

Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list because they are still in working memory.

Encoding Failure

Information was never processed into long-term memory due to lack of attention.

Decay Theory

Unused memory traces naturally erode over time.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Forgetting is rapid at first, then levels off over time.

Retrieval Failure

Memory is stored in long-term memory but cannot be accessed, such as tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Proactive Interference

Prior learning disrupts the recall of new information (forward-acting).

Retroactive Interference

New learning disrupts the recall of old information (backward-acting).

Suppression

Conscious, deliberate pushing of memories out of awareness.

Repression

Unconscious Freudian defense mechanism that hides anxiety-inducing memories.

Reconsolidation

Every time a memory is retrieved, it is slightly altered before being stored again.

Misinformation Effect

Exposing a person to misleading post-event information alters their original memory.

Source Misattribution

Attributing a memory or idea to the wrong source, explaining phenomena like déjà vu.