1.1 Why did the Conservatives dominate British politics, 1951-1964

1951 Labour voting

won 48.8% of national vote but large majorities in safe industrial/urban seats

1951 Conservatives voting

48% of national vote but more evenly distrubuted (321 seats to Labour’s 295)

1951 Liberal voting

fell from 9.1% in 1950 to 2.6% in 1951

Why did Bevan (secretary of Health for Labour) resign 1951

over NHS charges + rearmament, this demonstrated the growing conflict in Labour

What was Labour’s rule like before 1951

6 years of austerity, shortages and control, granting people little personal freedom

Why was there electoral fatigue in 1951 election

Attlee called the election only 20 months after Labour’s majority had fallen in 1950 to only 5 seats, hoping to improve its position

Who became the Conservatives chairman after 1945 + what did he do

Lord Woolton (successful retailer and wartime minister of Food). he pressed weak constituency associations to recruit, raise regular subscriptions, employ professional agents and campaign continuously. membership rose from 911,000 in 1946 to 2.8 mill by 1953 —> presence in local communities

Who led policy reconstruction for the Conservatives after 1945 + what did they do

Rab Butler and Conservative Research Department. 1947 Industrial Charter: mixed economy, full employment, trade union rights but (diff from Labour bc) didn’t want further nationalisation, wanted fewer controls and increase private ownership and choice

What was the 1951 Conservative Manifesto

Stop further nationalisation, keep coal public, increase production, preserve social services and produce 300,000 houses a year (‘property owning democracy’)

How did the leaders in the Conservative party after 1946 appeal to voters

Churchill reassured traditional voters, Woolton + Butler sought suburban, lower-middle class + skilled working class voters

When was Winston Churchill PM

1951-1955

Churchill’s leadership - how he was viewed

• oldest returning PM at 76 year old

• primary electoral asset was reputation —> experience, patriotism, national confidence

• but some saw him as an ageing leader who lacked his former energy

Churchill’s leadership - policies

• primarily focussed on foreign affairs (cold war time)

• domestic policy was given to Butler and Macmillan —> accepted most of Labour’s post war settlement (NHS, mixed economy etc.), reassuring ppl that Conservatives wouldn’t return Britain to social insecurity of 1930s

• also reduced controls, ended rationing, increased private consumption + house ownership (300,000 houses a year being built)

Churchill’s leadership - health and resignation

• suffered several minor strokes before returning back to office

• major stroke in June 1953

• conducted most of leadership from his bed, successor Eden waiting by

• resigned in April 1955

• his term didn’t have major reforms but provided continuity during the transition from austerity to diplomacy

• due to inactivity + age, success relied on the competence of those serving beneath him

When was Anthony Eden PM

1955-1957

Eden leadership - before PM

• joined Parliament in 1923, building a rep from foreign affairs

• 1935, became the youngest foreign secretary in 20th century

• worked closely with Churchill during world war 2 —> seen as his natural successor

• during Churchill’s term he worked as foregin secretary

Eden leadership - how he was viewed

• elegant appearance, polished public manner

• youthful, modern Conservative

• but appearance shielded the weaknesses in his temperament and judgement

Eden leadership - health

• during Churchill’s term when he worked as foreign secretary, he was suffering exhaustion and serious health issues

• 1953, badly performing operation left his health permanently damaged

Eden leadership - his term

• called for general election in May 1955

• won by a majority of 60 —> improvement compared to what he inherited from Churchill

• promoted the idea of a “property-owning democracy”

• appeared capable of expanding Conservative dominance

Eden leadership - Suez Crisis and resignation

• Suez Crisis destroyed his reputation in 1956

• Egyptian president, Nasser, nationalised the canal, upsetting Eden

• Eden called him an aggressive dictator

• Britain and France agreed that Israel would invade Egypt so European powers could intervene to supposedly separate the two and protect the canal

• military aspect went well but political planning was poor

• Eisenhower refused financial support and Britain was forced to halt and withdraw

• exposed Britain’s weakness and reliance on the US

• Eden made matters worse by denying in the House of Commons that Britain colluded with Israel

• resigned in January 1957 due to health

When was Macmillan president

1957-1963

Macmillan leadership - before PM

• Rab Butler was widely regarded as the other candidate but Macmillan was seen as more well placed to restore the Conservative’s image after the Suez Crisis

• He had served as housing minister, minister of defence, foreign secretary and chancellor —> wide range over domestic and international affairs

• served in the first world war —> contributed to his sympathy for working class soldiers

Macmillan leadership - image

• calm, well mannered Edwardian statesman but still supported modernisation, decolonisation and economic management

• great grandson of a Scottish farmer but married the daughter of the Duke of Devonshire

Macmillan leadership - as PM

• july 1957 speech “never had it so good”, benefited from the rising living standards —> low unemployment, real wages rose, increase in ownership of consumer goods eg. cars

• reinforced the idea of elitist “old boys club” → 14 cabinet members were educated in public skls and 6 in Eton

• 1958 investigation revealed 35/85 ministers were related to Macmillan by marriage

• 1959 general election won by a majority of 100 seats w/ slogan “Life’s better with the Conservatives”

Macmillan leadership - 60s + resignation

• after 1960, Britain’s EG worsened in comparison to West Germany and Japan

• July 1962, “Night of the Long Knives”, dismissed 7 ministers in panic

• 1963, membership for EEC rejected + Profumo affair connected the government to a sex scandal —> dishonesty and privilege

• resigned in October 1963 due to a health scare

• had led Conservatives to electoral peak but demonstrate their aristocratic government that was losing touch with a rapidly changing Britain

When was Sir Alec Douglas-Home PM

1963-1964

Douglas-Home leadership - before PM

• 1930s, served as a parliamentary private secretary for Chamberlain

• 1955, foreign secretary

• agreed with Macmillan’s policies of decolonisation and closer relations with the US

• understood little about economics

Douglas-Home leadership - unexpected

• unexpected because he was an Earl - a hereditary peer and in the House of Lords

• why would they choose an aristocratic landowner instead of an MP if they wanted to appear modern

• educated in Eton and Oxford

• but he had a reputation of sound judgement, honesty and courtesy —> advantage after the Profumo affair

• used the Peerage Act to renounce his title and returned to the House of Commons as Sir

Douglas-Home leadership - as PM

• calm manners and dry humour earned him respect

• aristocratic background was a clear target for Harold Wilson —> labelling him outdated

• restored some party unity and narrowed Labour’s opinion-poll lead

• lost the 1964 election but Labour’s majority was only 4 seats

• too short a premiership to a have a distinct programme but revealed “old boys club” and hard to respond to modernisation

Rab Butler - before 1945

• entered parliament in 1929 as MP

• started with education policy —> Education act of 1944/Butler act which increased the government’s responsibility to secondary education + created the Tripartite system: grammar, technical + secondary modern schools (seen as unequal later but big reform at the time)

Rab Butler - 1945 onwards

• after their lost in 1945, he helped reconstruct their political identity

• contributed to the 1947 industrial charter —> not dismantling all of Attlee’s reforms

• 1951, became chancellor: removing several wartime controls, decreasing taxes and overseeing the transition towards consumer prosperity, periodic restrictions to control imports and inflation —> “stop-go”

• like Keynesian demand-side economics and full employment

• “Butskellism” —> similar to Gaitskell but still different bc Butler wanted private ownership and low taxes and Labour wanted public ownership and redistrubution

• left Treasury in 1955 to become home secretary

Why did Butler never become PM

• hesitation

• lack of person following

• reluctance to campaign

• first chance was after Eden but Macmillan was deemed as the better chocie

• second chance was after Macmillan but Macmillan blocked Butler, choosing Douglas-Home instead

what was the post war consensus

the idea that Labour and Conservative governments broadly agreed on the same domestic policy after 1945

NHS post war consensus

Labour: largely free, funded by taxation, introduced charges for dentures and spectacles in 1951

Conservatives: accepted NHS, prescription charges in 1952

Consensus over principles, some conflict over charges

Welfare post war consensus

Labour: expanded welfare state, responsibility to protect people faced with unemployment, old age, sickness, poverty

Conservatives: maintained main structure, sometimes less willing to increase benefits

Consensus over main structure, some conflicts over generosity of benefits

Employment post war consensus

Labour: maintain full employment through public spending and Keynesian demand management

Conservatives: accepted, generally prioritised, used taxation/IR to manage demand

Consensus

Nationalisation post war consensus

Labour: coal, iron, steel, most road haulage, railways, gas, electricity

Conservatives: retained most but not iron, steel or most road haulage

Consensus on some, some conflict on what is nationalised

Economic management post war consensus

Labour: Keynesian demand management, rationing, signification government intervention

Conservatives: ended rationing, relaxed some controls, “stop-go”

Consensus on Keynesian demand management, some conflict on amount of government controls

Taxation and public spending post war consensus

Labour: high taxation to finance welfare, defence, reconstruction, progressive tax + redistrubution

Conservatives: lowered tax but maintained high spending to welfare, defence and housing but reversed tax if BoP problem or inflation

Adversarial on amount of tax but consensus on purpose

Housing post war consensus

Labour: prioritised council-house building, private building was restricted due to lack of labour/materials

Conservatives: continued large scale council-house building, encourage private building

Consensus on need for state supported construction, conflict on promotion of type (council v private ownership)

Trade unions post war consensus

Labour: close institutional relationship

Conservatives: consulted TUC, avoided major confrontation

Adversarial bc different relationships

Education post war consensus

Labour: implemented 1944 Education Act —> tripartite system

Conservatives: accepted + expanded system, expanded further and higher education

Consensus on main system

Defence post war consensus

Labour: joined NATO 1949, maintained conscription, approved development of atomic bomb

Conservatives: continued NATO membership, developed hydrogen bomb, conscription until 1960

Consensus with means of defence

Foreign policy and the US post war consenus

Labour: close relationship with the US, wanted containment of SovU, Britain presented as a global power

Conservatives: continued “special relationship”, supported NATO and attempted to preserve Britain’s international influence

Consensus on importance of “special relationship” with US

Empire and decolonisation post war consensus

Labour: independence to India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon but retained much of the empire, British influence overseas

Conservatives: continued and accelerated decolonisation, preserve influence

Consensus on independence and preserve Britain’s influence

Europe post war consensus

Labour: sceptical of joining supranational European orgs, prioritised Commonwealth and relations with US

Conservatives: initially shared Labour’s caution but later tried to apply to EEC

Adversarial bc Labour against but Conservatives caved

Two sides of the labour party

Bevanites (left), Gaitskellites (right)

Bevan v Gaitskell: NHS

Bevan: free at the point of use, opposed charges for prescriptions and dentures as a breach of core socialist principle

Gaitskell: supported charges to fund rearmament and cap NHS spending (centre laid here)

Bevan v Gaitskell: nationalisation

Bevan: wanted further public organisations (steel, chemicals etc.) —> clause IV

Gaitskell: argued nationalisation had lost electoral appeal, prioritised social justice over extending state contol

Bevan v Gaitskell: nuclear weapons

Bevan: early - opposed high defence spending, later - many backed unilateral disarmament

Gatiskell: supported possessing an independent British nuclear deterrent (centre laid here)

Bevan v Gatiskell: trade unions

Bevan: saw unions as partners in economic planning, wanter greater union influence over party policy

Gaitskell: wanted to limit union influence over party, opposed union-led economic policies (centre laid here)

Bevan v Gaitskell: economic policy

Bevan: opposed rearmament driven welfare and austerity cuts, favoured state-led investment and planning

Gaitskell: prioritised balancing the budget, containing inflation and funding defence via tax raises and NHS charges (centre laid here)

Bevan v Gaitskell: party leadership

Bevan: represented socialist principles + the Labour activists/grassroots

Gaitskell: represented moderation, electoral responsibility and was more appealing to the wider British public

1951 Bevan resigns

resigns over NHS charges

exposes the deep ideological differences in the party —> Bevanite quarrel

1951 General election

Attlee called this in a desperate attempt to unite the party following the ‘Bevanite Split’

unfortunately, the internal divisions had shattered public confidence, resulting in a loss for Labour (295 seats to 321)

1955 General election

great wartime leaders eg. Churchill were ageing

Gaitskell became leader of Labour in 1955 but attempted reform was unsuccessful

toxic internal division had actively alienated them from the British electorate

1956 Frank Cousins becomes leader of the TGWU

until the later 50s, unions had been happy with full employment and had moderate leaders. left-winger Cousins becomes leader of one of the most powerful unions in 1956 —> more assertive stance

1957 disagreement over nuclear weapons

Cousins led fierce union opposition against Gaitskell, regarding nuclear weapons (Cousins was strongly against them). Bevan changed his stance, becoming for nuclear weapons

1959 Clause IV dispute

Gaitskell put forward the idea of abolishing clause IV (the clause that committed them to nationalisation) but he backed down without a vote

1959 Blackpool conference

held just before the general election

this is where Gaitskell put forward his idea regarding Clause IV

1959 general election

Labour manifesto focussed on managing the existing mixed economy, avoiding calling for wide nationalisation

1960 Scarborough conference

Gaitskell gave an emotional speech, trying to convince the conference to reject unilateral nuclear disarmament

he lost the vote

1961 Death of Bevan

lost the only left-wing leader capable of maintaining party unity

turned Labour’s debate over nuclear policy bigger and more assertive

1961 Blackpool conference

Gaitskell overturns the vote of the previous years unilateral disarmament policy

secures a massive vote to restore Labour’s commitment to NATO and multilateral nuclear deterent

1963 Death of Gaitskell

opens the way for Labour to elect left-winger Harold Wilson as leader

manages to end the tension between the left and right of the party

1964 general election

Wilson manages to suppress the internal divisions of the party, presenting them as a united front

mission to end the Conservatives “stop-go” economic management

Labour returns to government with a narrow majority

Conservative domestic policy: housing

fulfilled their promise of building 300,000 houses annually

home ownership increased from 30% to 40%by 1964

but slums and shortages still existed

Conservative domestic policy: consumer freedom

food rationing ended in July 1954

‘housewives celebrating’ —> greater consumer choice and availability

but did not guarantee affordability

Conservative domestic policy: the NHS

preserved and expanded but introduced prescription charges in 1952

Labour opposed this saying it weakened the principle of free healthcare but little opposition in the media or by the public

Conservative domestic policy: welfare and pensions

periodically increased benefits

however during elections, Labour’s welfare benefits were always more generous so the Conservatives had to battle with this their own scheme

Conservative domestic policy: education

built new schools, expanded university provision

resentment for tripartite system grew because it created unequal outcomes

Conservative domestic policy: Clean Air Act 1956

pressure from the media and public following the Great Smog

implementation was slow and resistance from miner communities, who were used to open fires

Conservative domestic policy: Rent Act 1957

decontrolled rent (welcomed by landlords and property owners)

Labour, tenants’ organisations and rent strikers strongly opposed this

‘Rachmanism’ shocked the national press and public

Conservative domestic policy: New Towns

slum clearance programmes and New Towns replaced unhealthy homes with modern properties

some families welcomed their improved conditions, others resented the compulsory displacement

relocation lost families their community networks

Conservative domestic policy: Denationlisation

denationalised iron, steel and road haulage

private businesses welcomed this but labour and trade unions rallied against it, promising renationalisation

polls showed most ppl didn’t gaf —> just want stability

Conservative domestic policy: Life Peerage Act 1958

allowed life peers (including women) to sit in the House of Lords —> broadening membership

modernisation, little opposition

headline figures of improved living standards under Conservatives

• real wages increased from 1951-64 —> greater spending power

• disposable income rose 22% by 1959 from 1950

• unemployment was generally kept below 2%

• increase in ownership of consumer goods: by 1964 70% of households had a TV, 44% a washing machine and 1/3 a fridge

• ‘car mania’: number of licensed cars rose from 2.4m in 1951 to 8.4 in 1964

Economic restraint

1960-1961

• worsening of the BoP pushed Lloyd to raise taxes and Bank Rate, cut public spending and introduce public sector pay pause

• an example of a “stop”

• increase in taxes upsets ppl bc decrease in disposable income so decrease in spending power

The satire boom

1960-1963

• media mock the political elite + damage deference of the establishment

• this is the entertainment the public consumes

• can shape ppls views on the party in a negative way —> resistance

Orpington by-election

March 1962

• liberal Eric Lubbock overturned Conservative majority of 14,760 and won by 7,855

• taking 53% of the vote

• shattered the idea conservatives were invincible

Night of the Long Knives

July 1962

• Macmillan dismissed 7 cabinet ministers - 1/3 of the Cabinet

• made the party appear unstable and disloyal —> public lost trust in PM

• Macmillan fired long-serving ministers and fuelled internal discussions

Vassal Affair

1962

• admiralty clerk John Vassall was exposed as a Soviet spy who had passed secrets after being blackmailed

• demonstrates a connection to the Soviets —> untrustworthy —> people become sceptical

Skybolt crisis

December 1962

• the US cancelled the Skybolt missiles on which Britain’s nuclear plans depended

• unstable government —> plans are changing, don’t have control over their own missiles —> weak

EEC vote

January 1963

• French President Charles de Gaulle rejected Britain’s application to join the EEC

• humiliating —> creates speculation as to why they weren’t accepted —> doubt

Profumo Affair

March - June 1963

• War secretary John Profumo had a relationship with Christine Keeler, who was a friend of a Soviet naval attache

• another connection to the Soviets —> untrustworhty

• don’t feel safe with a government who may conspire with Soviets

Macmillan resigns

October 1963

• Macmillan is replaced by Sir Alec Douglas-Home

• new PM represented a very specific sort of ppl —> elites

• exclusive —> not appealing to middle or lower classes or to a modern Britian

Harold Wilson campaign 1964 election

• presents Labour as modern, energetic and committed to the “white heat” of technological change

• promise economic planning, industrial modernisation, regional development, more housing, investment in education and science

• must convince voters the party is reunited and offers responsible change

Alec Douglas-Home campaign 1964 election

• emphasise rising living standards, high employment, greater home ownership, increased access to consumer goods

• labour’s planning would bring higher taxation and excessive union influence

• appears tired and out of touch compared to younger and modern Labour

• convince that experience and stability is safer than Wilson’s untested programme

Jo Grimond campaign 1964 election

• modern alternative

• electoral reform, closer European cooperation, civil liberties, decentralisation, economic modernisation

• persuade that Britain needs genuine political reform rather than a change between two established parties