Biology & Psychology Quick Review Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering basic genetics, neuron structures, neurotransmitters, action potentials, nervous and endocrine systems, brain anatomy, drugs, pathologies, and psychological concepts.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter that contracts voluntary muscles and facilitates memory formation; deficits are strongly linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter regulating pleasure, reward sensations, focus, and voluntary movement; excess leads to Schizophrenia while deficits cause Parkinson's disease.

Endorphins

Natural opiate-like chemical messengers that mask physical pain, alleviate stress, and produce feelings of euphoria.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter responsible for regulating mood, sleep patterns, appetite, and emotional stability; low levels are associated with clinical depression.

Norepinephrine

Chemical messenger that speeds up heart rate and bodily functions during stress, triggering physical arousal and acting as both a hormone and neurotransmitter.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows neural activity to prevent overexcitation; a deficit is linked to anxiety disorders.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter that accelerates neural firing and plays a critical role in learning and long-term memory formation.

Agonist

Drug or chemical that mimics a specific neurotransmitter by binding to its post-synaptic receptor and triggering a biological response.

Antagonist

Drug or chemical that blocks neurotransmitter action by binding to a receptor without activating it, preventing real chemical messengers from attaching.

Substance P

Neuropeptide that transmits nociceptive pain signals from peripheral nerve fibers to the central nervous system.

Brainstem

The oldest ancestral core of the brain, located at the base, that manages automatic survival functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

Medulla

Structure at the base of the brainstem that automatically controls vital survival functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum

Structure at the back of the brain responsible for maintaining posture, balance, motor coordination, and procedural memory.

Reticular Formation

Nerve network traversing the brainstem that regulates sleep-wake cycles, alertness, arousal, and filters incoming sensory stimuli.

Cerebrum

The largest upper part of the brain, divided into left and right hemispheres, that manages complex cognitive processes and voluntary actions.

Cerebral Cortex

The wrinkled outer layer of gray matter covering the brain hemispheres that executes higher-level thinking, language, and perception.

Corpus Callosum

A broad band of dense axon fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling cross-hemispheric communication.

Limbic System

A border of interconnected neural structures surrounding the brainstem that governs basic drives, emotions, and memory processing.

Association Areas

Regions across the cerebral cortex that do not receive direct sensory input, but instead integrate raw data from various zones to make sense of complex information.

Thalamus

The brain's central sensory relay station that processes and routes incoming sensory information (except smell) to dedicated cortical areas.

Hypothalamus

Subcortical structure that maintains homeostasis by regulating hunger, thirst, body temperature, and controlling the pituitary gland.

Hippocampus

Limbic structure critical for consolidating, encoding, and synthesizing new explicit long-term memories.

Amygdala

Almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system that process fear, aggression, emotional memory, and threat recognition.

Frontal Lobe

Cortical region at the front of the brain managing executive functions, decision-making, planning, personality, motor movement, and speech production.

Parietal Lobe

Cortical region situated behind the frontal lobe that receives and processes tactile sensory information like touch, pressure, temperature, and spatial position.

Occipital Lobe

Cortical region at the back of the head containing the primary visual cortex dedicated entirely to visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

Cortical region located near the ears that handles auditory processing, language comprehension, and facial recognition.

Motor Cortex

A strip of tissue at the rear of the frontal lobe that plans, controls, and executes voluntary muscle movements across the body.

Somatosensory Cortex

A strip of tissue at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and maps touch, temperature, and tactile sensations from body surfaces.

Pineal Gland

Endocrine structure that releases melatonin into the bloodstream in response to dark cycles to regulate circadian sleep rhythms.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine organ in the neck that secretes thyroxine to control metabolic rate and bodily energy consumption.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's master gland, directed by the hypothalamus, which secretes growth hormone and dictates hormone production in other glands.

Pancreas

Glandular organ that secretes insulin and glucagon to balance blood glucose levels and manage body fuel.

Adrenal Glands

Pair of endocrine glands situated above the kidneys that secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine during emergency fight-or-flight states.

Testes

Primary male reproductive gonads that synthesize androgenic steroids like testosterone to drive male physical traits.

Ovaries

Primary female reproductive gonads that synthesize estrogen and progesterone to regulate menstrual cycles and female physical traits.

Ghrelin, Orexin, and Leptin

Trio of metabolic hormones where the first two trigger hunger cravings, while the third signals full energy storage to inhibit appetite.

Oxytocin

Hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland that promotes social bonding, empathy, labor contractions, and trust.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Brain recording technique using electrodes placed on the scalp to measure continuous electrical post-synaptic voltage waves across the brain surface.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

Functional imaging technique that tracks the consumption of radioactive glucose to display metabolic activity across active brain zones.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Diagnostic scan that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed, high-resolution $3\text{D}$ structural snapshots of soft tissue.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Advanced neuroimaging technique that tracks real-time blood flow and oxygen usage, pairing structural clarity with active functional monitoring.

Stimulants

Class of psychoactive drugs (such as caffeine and cocaine) that heighten central nervous system activity, heart rate, alertness, and motor output.

Depressants

Class of psychoactive drugs (such as alcohol and opioids) that slow down central nervous system activity, inducing relaxation, sedation, and reduced neural firing.

Hallucinogens

Class of psychoactive drugs (such as LSD and marijuana) that warp sensory perceptions, distort temporal processing, and alter thoughts.

Addiction

Compulsive, uncontrollable engagement in a behavior or substance use despite severe psychological, physical, or social harm.

Tolerance

Neuroadaptation resulting from sustained drug exposure where larger doses are required to produce the substance's original effect.

Withdrawal

Combination of painful physical illness and psychological distress experienced when an addictive substance is abruptly discontinued.

Broca's Area

Region in the left frontal lobe controlling the physical motor movements required to produce articulate speech; damage prevents fluent speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Region in the left temporal lobe controlling language comprehension; damage results in fluent but meaningless speech output.

Aphasia

Impairment of language ability, affecting speech production or comprehension, typically resulting from brain damage to specific speech centers.

Structural Plasticity

The brain's physical capacity to modify its neural connections, sprout new dendrites, and reconfigure pathways as a result of learning or experience.

Functional Plasticity

The brain's ability to shift specific mental functions from damaged or destroyed regions to undamaged neural areas.

Contralateral Hemispheres

Organization pattern where the left cerebral hemisphere controls sensory and motor functions for the right side of the body, and vice versa.

Lesion

Surgically or naturally created destruction of neural tissue, analyzed by researchers to determine the lost behavioral or cognitive function.

Neurogenesis

The biological creation and integration of brand-new, functional neurons, which continues into adulthood primarily within the hippocampus.

Reflex Arc

A simple spinal loop involving a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron that triggers an immediate physical response before the brain processes the signal.

Reuptake

Process in which presynaptic neuron terminals reabsorb excess neurotransmitter molecules from the synaptic cleft for recycling.

Phineas Gage

Historical medical case where a tamping iron damaged the subject's prefrontal cortex, dramatically changing his personality and proving executive functions reside in the frontal lobe.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal support cells that insulate axons with myelin, nourish neurons, clear metabolic waste, and maintain brain homeostasis in a $10:1$ ratio to neurons.

Axon

A single long, fluid-filled tube extending from the neuron's cell body that conducts electrical signals away toward other cells.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer wrapping around neural axons that insulates the signal and speeds up the transmission of action potentials.

Dendrite

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive incoming chemical signals from neighboring presynaptic cells.

Axon Terminal

The specialized end structure of an axon branch that stores neurotransmitters in vesicles and releases them into the synaptic cleft.

Cell Body / Nucleus

Also called the soma; maintains the metabolic life of the neuron, generates energy, and contains genetic DNA.

All-or-None Law

Principle stating that a neuron fires completely at full power once threshold voltage is reached, or does not fire at all.

Polarized State

The resting membrane potential state (approximately $-70\,\text{mV}$) where the interior of the neuron maintains a net negative charge relative to the outside.

Depolarized State

State during an action potential where membrane channels open, allowing positive sodium ions to flood inside and make the interior positively charged.

Stimulus Threshold

The precise voltage level (approximately $-55\,\text{mV}$) required to open voltage-gated ion channels and trigger an action potential.

Refractory Period

Brief recovery interval immediately following an action potential during which the cell repolarizes and cannot fire another signal.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The core command system comprising the brain and spinal cord that integrates sensory data and coordinates bodily responses.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Network of nerves outside the skull and spine that connects the central command center to limbs, skin, muscles, and internal organs.

Somatic Nervous System

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system responsible for sensory input and conscious, voluntary skeletal muscle control.

Autonomic Nervous System

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates automatic, involuntary visceral functions such as digestion, heart rate, and respiration.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system that activates the 'fight-or-flight' response during stress by dilating pupils, accelerating heart rate, and mobilizing energy.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress, promoting 'rest-and-digest' functions to conserve energy.

Evolutionary Psychology

Field of psychology studying how natural selection adapted behaviors and psychological traits to maximize genetic survival and reproduction.

Eugenics

The controversial movement advocating for the selective breeding of humans to manipulate genetic qualities across generations.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical siblings originating from a single fertilized egg (zygote) that splits into two separate embryos sharing identical genetic code.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal siblings originating from two separate eggs fertilized independently by two distinct sperm cells at the same time.

Nature vs. Nurture

The central debate concerning the relative influences of biological genetics versus environmental experiences on human behavior and traits.

Parkinson's Disease

Neurodegenerative disorder caused by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, leading to tremors, muscle rigidity, and movement issues.

Alzheimer's Disease

Progressive neurodegenerative condition characterized by amyloid plaques and tau tangles that deplete acetylcholine levels, damaging memory and cognitive function.

Schizophrenia

Psychiatric disorder characterized by excess dopamine activity, leading to hallucinations, delusions, and distorted reality testing.

Depression

Mood disorder associated with monoamine pathway deficits, specifically diminished activity of serotonin or norepinephrine, affecting mood, sleep, and motivation.

Myasthenia Gravis

Autoimmune disease where antibodies block or destroy acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions, causing extreme muscle weakness.