Rhetoric

English III

schemes

use the intentional arrangement (strucutre/placement) of words or phrases to create meaning and persuasion

antithesis

contrasts two ideas by placing them next to each other, almost always in parallel structure (i.e. that’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind)

asyndeton

using no conjunctions in order to amplify an effect or the importance of an idea; an asyndetic list is useful for the strong and direct climactic effect it has, more emphatic than if a final conjunction were to be used (i.e. i came, i saw, i conquered)

polysyndeton

the use of more conjunctions than is normal, often for dramatic effect or to add emphasis; it creates a sense of building up towards an outcome (i.e. we have not power, nor influence, nor money, nor authority; but a willingness to persevere)

gradatio

figure of repetition where words or phrases or sentences are arranged in order of increasing intensity or importance, often in parallel construction; words or phrases arranged by degrees of increasing significance (i.e. in the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God)

distinctio

presenting a specific meaning for a word or reference to the various meanings of a word in order to prevent ambiguity or confusion, thus calling the reader’s attention to the need for clarity (i.e. move the precipitate from the filter paper quickly—that is, within three minutes)

metanoia

qualifies a statement or a part of a statement by rejecting it or calling it back and expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way (i.e. most companies try to capture the spring water taste; or rather, they manufacture it by adding minerals and ozone)

anaphora

repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines (i.e. we shall fight in france, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence…)

anadiplosis

repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clauses to illustrate cause and effect (i.e. mental prep leads to training; training leads to muscle tone; muscle tone produces athletic excellence)

epistrophe

a counterpart to anaphora—the repetition of words or phrases coming at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences, rather than at the beginning (i.e. they saw no evil, they spoke no evil, they heard no evil)

antanagoge

placing a good point or benefit next to a fault criticism, or problem, in order to reduce the impact or significance of the negative point (i.e. true, he always forgets my birthday, but he buys me presents all the time)

parenthesis

consists of a word, phrase, or whole sentence inserted as an aside in the middle of another sentence — can be set off either by dashes, which are more dramatic and forceful, or by parentheses to make your aside less stringent

rhetorical question

asks a question not for the purpose of further discussion, but to assert or deny an answer implicitly; a question whose answer is obvious or implied (i.e. do you think money grows on trees?)

hypophora

asking 1+ questions then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length, in order to demonstrate authority or credibility (where can we look to augment our water supply? one possibility is the deep aquifer…)

procatalepsis

directly addressing objections allowing the writer to further his or her own argument while satisfying readers at the same time, since it suggests that the writer has fully thought out his/her argument (many experts want to classify Sanskrit as a dead language, but I do not)

tropes

rely on a manipulation of a word’s or phrase’s literal meaning to a figurative one

litotes

form of understatement where a thing is affirmed by stating the negative of its opposite, often employing a double negative (those who examine themselves will not remain ignorant of their failings and shortcomings)

meiosis

a humorous understatement using terms that make something or someone seem less significant than it/they really is/are (in democracy at least, civil liberties are upheld. No citizen can be wantonly made to sit through Broadway shows)

allusion

brief reference to a famous historical or literary figure, event, place (real or fake), art; may be drawn from history, literature, geography, music, religion (in such moments, I can’t help but feel like Sisyphus)

eponym

a specific type of allusion, substituting the name of a person famous for some attribute in place of the attribute itself; the person can be historical, mythological, literary, or biblical (I need a Hercules to move this table)

paradox

an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it (a pity that youth must be wasted on the young)

analogy

compares two things alike in several respects for the purpose of explaining/clarifying an unfamiliar idea or object by showing how the idea or object is similar to an unfamiliar one (writing a personal narrative is like finding my way through a forest without being quite sure what game i am chasing, what landmark i am seeing)

metaphor

comparing a word with something different from what the word literally means, a simile without like or as (the line of cars stretched for miles, a river of steel and glass and frustration)

irony

expression of something contrary to the expected or intended meaning; the words say something but mean another (happiness is having a close-knit family in another city)

rhetoric

the art of persuasion; the way a rhetor produces a text to create and communicate meaning; using language to accomplish a set purpose

components of the rhetorical situation

subject, audience, persona, purpose, genre, context

rhetorical triangle/Aristotelian Triad

persona (top), subject (right), audience (left) — adapted is purpose in middle, genre and context outside

subject

the what + the evidence used to develop it

the audience

the to whom + their knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs

the persona (character of the rhetor)

the who; who the author wants the audience to perceive them as, based in part on who they presume the audience to be and in part on the textual evidence or proof the rhetor finds most compelling or persuasive

the purpose

the why; the aim intended by the rhetor, usually an infinitive phrase

the context

the where and when; the convergence of time, place, people, events, and motivating force that influences how the rhetor understands, analyzes, and generates the rhetor’s message (persona, appeals, subject matter)

the genre

the how; sort of text (letter, ad, speech, essay, film, etc) that helps achieve the purpose

CAPPSTone

Context, Audience, Persona, Purpose, Tone

C — Context

time, place, people, events, motivating force of rhetor

A — audience

Knowledge, beliefs, attitudes

Persona of rhetor

How do they want to be perceived? What do they presume about their audience?

Purpose

Infinitive phrase (to + strong verb + clarifying info)

rhetorical appeals to an audience

ethos, pathos, logos

effective arguments

appeal to audience, ask others to listen, judge fairly and agree with writer or consider the viewpoint; most balance/combine all three kinds of appeals (ethical, emotional, logical)

ethos

the ethical appeal; often not explicit (unless through an anecdote), the credibility of the author that pervades the whole; how the text appeals by showing the rhetor as a trustworthy person, the “good person speaking well” — how the writer conveys their opinion and character, projected by the quality and reasonableness of their writing, includes previous knowledge of the rhetor

pathos

the emotional appeal; aims directly for the heart — beliefs, values, feelings; taps into feelings to heighten responsiveness, inspire consideration, compel action, assure values; draws on emotions and interests of audience directly or indirectly so they will be emotionally inclined to buy into the rhetor’s arguments; how it makes you feel; pros: impactful, digestible, human; cons: manipulative, sappy, lack of evidence, can be overwhelminglo

logos

the logical appeal; addresses the rationalism of the audience — their capacity for reason about an issue; establishes the truth of a proposition or claim through reason supported by fact-based evidence (data, statistics, testimony); develops and presents ideas through specific examples or details so the audience sees the rationality, logic, and reasonableness of the argument; how it makes you think; the “objective” appeal; pros: hard to deny fact, traditionally the strongest; cons: hardest to formulate, lack of human connection, less accessible to some readers

deductive reasoning

works from the general (thesis) to the specific (evidence)ind

inductive reasoning

works from the specific (evidence) to the general (thesis)

canons of rhetoric

appeals, structure, style

appeals

the art of generating effective material that is clear, forceful, and convincing

structure

the art of organizing material in a text to help the rhetor achieve the purpose and create the effect that the text is designed to accomplish

types of structure

background info, specific methods of development (narration, description, enumeration, compare/contrast, cause-and-effect), use of facts/stats/authorities, references personal experience, relatives anecdotes or narratives, evokes sensory images, defines terms and concepts, deductive or inductive reasoning, examines and refutes objections, asserts a conclusion (w/call to action, solution, or new thought process)

style

the art of producing sentences and words that make a favorable impression on the audience: poetic devices, word choice, tone, schemes, tropes, satire

style types

poetic devices (imagery, personification, etc.), word choice, tone and shifts in tone, variance of sentence structure, schemes, tropes

tone

evaluate the attitude towards 1) subject 2) audience; critical to understanding the message; needs understanding of diction, images, details, and syntax to understands

shifts in tone

caused by key words, punctuation, stanza and paragraph divisions; changes in line/stanza/sentence length, contrasts in diction