Summer Work Key Terms

Hunting-foraging peoples

Early human groups who sustained themselves by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants, moving frequently to follow food sources.

Pastoral societies

Nomadic or semi-nomadic groups centered on the herding of domesticated animals, usually living in grasslands or areas unfit for large-scale farming.

Agricultural societies

Settled communities whose economy and survival are based primarily on farming crops and domesticating animals.

Patriarchy

A social or political system in which men hold primary power, dominating roles in political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.

Specialization of labor

An economic arrangement where individuals focus on distinct, specific tasks (like pottery, metalworking, or ruling) rather than everyone producing their own food.

Urban societies

Social structures centered around densely populated cities, characterized by complex layouts, diverse economies, and formal governance.

Stone Age

A broad prehistoric period during which humans widely used stone tools before the discovery and widespread use of metals.

Neolithic Revolution

The wide-scale transition of human cultures from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, allowing for population growth and early villages.

Iron Age

The period of human history following the Bronze Age, marked by the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons, which increased agricultural and military efficiency.

Metallurgy

The science and technology of extracting metals from their ores, purifying them, and creating useful alloys or objects.

Core/foundational civilizations

The earliest complex societies (such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and Shang China) that developed independently and laid the groundwork for future cultures.

Civilization

A highly organized society characterized by urban centers, specialized labor, complex institutions (like government and religion), social hierarchy, and advanced record-keeping.

City-state

An independent, self-governing political unit consisting of a centralized city and its surrounding territory.

Cultural hearth

A geographic area where a unique culture, set of ideas, or technology first develops and from which it diffuses outward to other regions.

Mandate of Heaven

An ancient Chinese political and religious doctrine used to justify the rule of the Emperor, stating that authority to rule was granted by divine approval based on just leadership.

Hammurabi

An ancient Babylonian king famous for enacting one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes in history.

Legalism

A Chinese political philosophy emphasizing strict laws, harsh punishments, and absolute obedience to the ruler to maintain social order.

Divination

The practice of seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown through supernatural means, such as reading oracle bones or interpreting stars.

Confucianism

A Chinese ethical and philosophical system focusing on filial piety, social harmony, moral integrity, and proper rituals.

Zoroastrianism

An ancient Persian monotheistic religion centered on a cosmic struggle between the forces of good (Ahura Mazda) and evil.

Daoism

A Chinese philosophy and religion emphasizing harmony with the 'Dao' (the Way), living simply, and aligning oneself with the natural order of the universe.

Vedic Religion

The ancient religious beliefs and practices of the Indo-Aryans in South Asia, characterized by ritual sacrifices and polytheism, which served as the foundation for Hinduism.

Hebrew monotheism (Judaism)

The monotheistic religion developed by the ancient Hebrews, centered on a covenant with one all-powerful God and guided by moral laws like the Ten Commandments.

Rig Veda

The oldest and most sacred of the Hindu Vedas, consisting of a collection of ancient Sanskrit hymns, rituals, and prayers dedicated to Vedic deities.

Book of the Dead

A collection of ancient Egyptian funerary spells, prayers, and magic formulas intended to guide and protect the deceased in the afterlife.

Epic of Gilgamesh

An ancient Mesopotamian epic poem that is considered one of the earliest surviving great works of literature, detailing the adventures of the king of Uruk.

Papyrus

A thick, paper-like material made from the pith of a reedy wetland plant, used extensively by ancient Egyptians for writing, drawing, and record-keeping.

Cuneiform

One of the earliest systems of writing, developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia, distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets.

Hieroglyphs

A formal writing system used by ancient Egyptians that combined logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic elements, often carved into stone or written on papyrus.

Pictograph

A simple pictorial symbol used to represent an object or a concept in early writing systems.

Alphabets

Writing systems in which each graphic symbol (letter) represents a distinct sound of spoken language, significantly simplifying literacy compared to ideograms or pictographs.

Surplus labor

Work performed beyond what is necessary to meet basic subsistence needs, producing excess resources that enable non-farming specialists, administrative roles, and public projects.