crj research exam 3

what is a population

the total people/social units the researcher wishes to generalize to

what is a sample

a subset of the population, some, but not all elements in the population

what does “n” stand for

population

What does representativeness mean

typical of that group

Should the samples' aggregate characteristics closely match the population’s aggregate characteristics?

yes

What is one of the hardest things to do in social sciences

can never be sure that a sample is like a population in all respects

If representativeness is so difficult, wouldn’t assessing everyone provide the most valid results

maybe not

What are the problems with assessing entire populations

considerable time, other administrative resources, might be impossible, sampling destroys the pop under study

considerable time

too time-consuming to contact all members of the population, may not reflect reality

other administrative resources

hassle for identifying /locating all schools, convincing schools to participate

might be impossible to study entire population

cannot collect information from all persons/units you wish to study

sampling destroys the population under study

If destroyed, cannot be returned to population

sampling

the process of selecting observations from a population

biased sampling

when it does not fully represent the larger population from which it was selected

random sampling

all cases have an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in a study

sampling frame

the set of all cases from which the sample is actually selected

where the list come from

computerized list, telephone directory, municipally/county population records

what do researchers often not have

a list of the population they are studying

what are the types of probability ( random) sampling designs

simple random sample, systematic sample approach, stratified sampling approach, cluster sampling

simple random sample

Every subject or combination of subjects from your target population has an equal chance of being included in the study

what is the combination formula

nCr= n!/r!(n-r)!

what does “r” mean

sample size

what does “!” mean

factorials

sampling error

the amount that a sample deviates from the true population mean

the larger the sampling error….

The larger the sample is from the target population

How do we reduce sampling error

try to increase sample size

systematic sample approach

First, select a random starting point, then select every kth item thereafter until your sample of the desired size is selected

Advantages of the systematic sample approach

less time-consuming to draw samples, only need a random number table

Disadvantages of the systematic sample approach

danger when the paper list follows a periodic or cynical pattern

What is a periodic/cynical pattern

a repetitive phenomenon

stratified sampling approach

First, break the population into categories, then select a random sample of cases from each stratum

cluster sampling (3 step process)

break the population into categories, then select a random sample of clusters, and select a sample of cases within each randomly selected cluster

geo focus

Divide states into counties or regions

advantages of clusters

cost effective

disadvantages of clusters

general assumption that the selected clusters are the same with neighboring cluster

non-probability sampling

sampling that occurs from non-random selection of subjects from a population, non-equal chance of being selected

Why use non-probability sampling

an extremely small # of cases to be studied, availability of cases is limited, problem in the early stage of investigation, the population is not readily identifiable

non-probability sampling strategies

convenience sampling, purpose-driven, quota sampling

convenience sampling

selecting subjects who are easily accessible and willing to participate (availability sampling)

purpose driven

subjects selected based on researcher’s own judgement and expertise

quota sampling

researcher identifies characteristics of interest from the population

problems with quota

researcher may disproportionately sample

referral sampling strategies

useful for reaching hard-to-access populations

snowball sampling design

researcher gets access to someone in the targeted group, then asks the subject to identify another member of the target population

network sampling design

Targeted respondents are asked to identify other members of the target population, socially linked

survey research

includes both questionaries or interviews

What is the most common of the four methodological approaches

survey research

What are the two strategies for survey research

interview with subjects and formal questionaries

what questions can be included on questionaries and interviews

social background/demographic, past behaviors: beliefs and values, sensitive information

how are interviews conducted

face to face or telephone

How are questionnaires conducted

home delivery, snail mail, internet, or email

self-administered questionnaires

a questionnaire designed to be completed by a research subject without intervention of the researchers

What are the 3 types of self-administered questionnaires

home delivered, snail mail, internet, or emailed

home-delivered questionnaire

Delivered to your home by researcher, study explained, returned to pick up completed

snail mail questionnaire

Packet sent to residence using first-class mail and instructed to send completed survey back

problems with snail mail

subjects need enticement to return questionnaire

advantages of snail mail

large sample is required, cost must be kept low, and a moderate response rate

What is the most common approach for delivering questionnaires today

internet or emailed survey

What are the advantages of an internet or an emailed survey

easy and cheap, require less time to carry out, creative marketing

disadvantages of emailed surveys

Subject to coverage error, response rates are low

what is coverage error

only research subjects with access to the internet or email accounts

What is the response rate for online surveys

10%

matrix question

same set of response categories is used by multiple questions

contingency question

Relevant only to some respondents, answer based on the response to the previous question

What are the characteristics of a good opening question

relatively easy to answer, interesting/engaging, consistent with respondents’ expectations, motivate them to complete the survey

errors in survey research responses

forgetting or distorting, conscious or unconscious way

when recording own answers

not read the question, not care about providing a valid response, not understand the intended meaning

How to avoid positional response sets

vary the arrangement of question and the way they are asked

errors introduced by researchers

avoid causing errors/flaws based on confusing wording or other wording problems

close-ended question

respondents selects an answer from a list of responses

advantages of close ended

require little effort from respondents to complete, little effort for researchers to choose limited response, may make reporting sensitive or embarrassing info easier, easier to code and analyze

disadvantages of closed ended

difficult to develop, force respondents to choose limited responses, may dampen respondents’ motivation

open ended questions

respondents were not given a list of responses

When are open-ended questions used

early stages of research, when less is known about the topic

Why should you use open-ended questions sparingly in self-administered questionnaires

Writing sentences takes more effort than circling and filling in multiple-choice bubbles, and researchers are not available to probe content(clarify)

advantages of open ended

can yield a wealth of info, can further develop researchers’ understanding, can clarify issues

disadvantages of open ended

require more work, may yield uneven responses

memory problems

humans suffer from forgetting details and distorting response

interviews

more interaction between research and subjects and more pressure

What are the cognitive steps that respondents go through

understand the literal and intended meaning of the question, retrieve relevant information from memory, formulate a response in accord with the question and the retrieved information, communicate a response deemed appropriate

face to face interviews

appropriate to use when respondents have literacy problems

advantages of face to face

researcher can clarify questions, elicit more complete responses from subjects, to determine the order of questions asked, to use more varied formats

general interview guide

unstructured, list general issues, no standardized order, considerable freedom in questioning

semi-structured interview

have specific objectives, still allow freedom about formulation questions

standardized open-ended interview

Most structured, specific questions in a specific order retrieve rich, detailed responses

disadvantages of face to face

high cost per respondent, difficulty reaching some respondents, response biases introduced by interviews

errors introduced by the researcher in face-to-face

Interviewers may influence subjects’ responses, and a researcher’s characteristics can determine how a subject responds

errors introduced by subjects in face to face

false response because of poor memory, desire to make a favorable impression, embarrassment, dislike the interviewer

telephone interviewing

researcher can call and conduct an interview via phone call

advantages of telephone interviewing

less costing, less prep time, easy to call back if not home

2 types of computer assisted telephone interviewing

live researcher asking questions and records subjects’ responses and completes computer-administered

Advantages of computer assisted telephone interviewing

more convenient, safer for the interviewer

Disadvantages of computer-assisted telephone interviewing

subjects don’t answer phone, don’t complete

warning mailings/emails

Provide subjects a heads-up about a request to participate in a research study

when is field research traditionally used

at the beginning stages of research on a topic

what are the sources of stress/danger

physical discomfort, awkward and embarrassing encounters, hostile and suspicious researchers’ intentions, conflicts between their roles as participants and observers, repulsion and/or attraction people studied

physical discomfort

coping with temperature, weather conditions, time of data collection, and smells

awkward and embarrassing encounters

prostitution; population/subjects want secrecy

hostile and suspicious of researchers’ intentions

gang members/drug dealers

conflicts between their roles as participants and observer

ethical dilemmas