CCPA 3360

Communication Process

Communication is a process in which people create and exchange meaning. Effective communication involves preparing, encoding carefully, selecting an appropriate channel, receiving feedback, and checking for understanding

Transactional communication

The transaction model treats communication as simultaneous and interactive: both people send and receive messages, while context, frame of reference, feedback, and noise affect meaning

Sender/receiver

The sender initiates and encodes a message; the receiver receives and decodes it. In the transactional view, people can function as sender and receiver at the same time.

Encoding

Putting an idea or meaning into symbols/codes that another person can interpret. Good encoding considers the receiver's frame of reference.

Decoding

Interpreting the message received. Misunderstanding can occur when the receiver interprets the message differently from what the sender intended.

Message

The information or meaning being communicated. The textbook stresses that the message received—not merely the message intended—is the one to consider when evaluating misunderstanding.

Channel

The medium used to carry a message, such as face-to-face conversation, phone, videoconference, email, memo, or text. Channels differ in richness and speed.

Feedback

A response that shows the speaker how the message was received and interpreted. Effective feedback should be appropriate, descriptive rather than unnecessarily judgmental, and well timed.

Noise

Anything that interferes with communication by distorting or blocking the message. External noise comes from the environment; internal noise comes from conditions of the communicators, such as distraction, fatigue, or preoccupation.

Environment/context

The physical and social setting in which communication occurs. Context—the information surrounding an event—affects meaning and interpretation.

Frame of reference

A person's experiences, knowledge, values, attitudes, and other factors that shape how a message is encoded and decoded. Different frames of reference are a major source of misunderstanding.

Formal and informal communication

Formal communication follows recognized organizational channels and structures. Informal communication occurs outside formal channels, including personal conversations and the grapevine.

Ethical communication

Communication that is honest, responsible, fair, and respectful. Ethical decisions are not always clear-cut, so communicators should consider consequences, responsibilities, and organizational values.

Traditional/classical organization

Emphasizes formal structure, control, efficiency, division of labor, and a clear chain of command. Bureaucratic structures favor formal downward communication and can slow decisions.

Human relations organization

Emphasizes employee–boss relationships and the belief that attention to employees and positive relationships can improve productivity.

Human resources perspectives

Emphasizes employee–manager teamwork, combining employee satisfaction with management control. Employees are treated as resources whose ideas and participation matter.

Systems/contingency thinking

Adapts management style to the needs, expectations, and culture of employees and to the situation rather than assuming one style works everywhere.

Transformational organizations

Respond to constant workplace change and electronic media. The textbook discusses multiunit and virtual organizations as examples.

Organizational culture

The shared values, norms, expectations, and practices that shape how an organization operates and communicates.

Upward communication

Communication from employees toward supervisors or higher levels, such as feedback, reports, concerns, and suggestions.

Downward communication

Communication from supervisors or higher levels toward employees, such as instructions, policies, decisions, and expectations.

Horizontal communication

Communication between people or departments at similar organizational levels, often used for coordination.

Formal and informal communication networks

Formal networks follow the official structure. Informal networks develop through relationships and the grapevine and can spread information quickly but may also spread incomplete or inaccurate information.

Organizational Silos

When departments or groups become isolated and information does not move effectively across organizational boundaries, causing coordination problems.

Sources of conflict

Conflict can come from differences in goals, values, expectations, information, personalities, communication styles, culture, resources, or interpretations. The textbook distinguishes A-type relationship/affective conflict from C-type task/cognitive conflict.

Avoiding

Withdrawing from or not addressing the conflict. It may help when an issue is minor or emotions need time to cool, but important issues can remain unresolved.

Accommodating

Giving priority to the other person's concerns. It can help preserve a relationship or reduce tension when the issue matters more to the other person.

Competing

Strongly pursuing one's own position. It can fit situations requiring a firm decision, but overuse can damage relationships.

Compromising

Seeking a middle ground in which each side gives up something. It can be useful when time is limited or both sides have important competing concerns.

Collaborating

Seeking a mutually satisfying solution by addressing the underlying concerns of all parties. It is useful when both the issue and the relationship are important.

Cultural context

Context is the information surrounding an event or message. Cultural context affects how direct, indirect, explicit, implicit, verbal, and nonverbal communication is interpreted.

Individualism/collectivism

Individualistic cultures emphasize the individual, autonomy, assertiveness, and individual rights. Collectivistic cultures emphasize group membership, relationships, obligations, and group goals.

High-context/low-context communication

Low-context communication spells out meaning clearly and directly in the words. High-context communication relies more on surrounding information, relationships, and implicit meaning; messages may be briefer and more indirect.

Cultural intelligence

The ability to recognize cultural differences, avoid automatically judging others by your own cultural expectations, and adapt communication appropriately. The textbook emphasizes cultural awareness, flexibility, and interpreting behavior in context.

Risks of stereotyping

Stereotyping can cause assumptions about individuals based on group membership instead of the actual person and situation, creating misunderstanding and unfair judgments.

Hearing vs. listening

Hearing is the physical ability to receive sound. Listening is an active process of receiving, interpreting, evaluating, and responding to a message.

Active listening

Trying to understand the speaker's total message—including verbal, vocal, and nonverbal cues—then checking understanding by rephrasing or paraphrasing.

Critical listening

Objectively evaluating facts, ideas, evidence, and reasoning. It is useful when assessing whether a message is sound.

Empathic listening

Focusing on understanding the speaker's feelings and perspective, not just the facts. It communicates support and builds relationships.

Listening barriers

Barriers include physical distractions/noise, personal distractions, semantic problems, technology, emotional reactions, daydreaming, pretending to listen, excessive note-taking, and avoiding difficult material.

Paraphrasing

Restating the speaker's meaning in your own words to check understanding. It is a key active-listening behavior.

Questioning

Questions clarify meaning, uncover information, and help listeners check assumptions rather than jump to conclusions.

Feedback

A response that shows the speaker how the message was received and interpreted. Effective feedback should be appropriate, descriptive rather than unnecessarily judgmental, and well timed.

Eye contact

Can show attention, confidence, and involvement, but its meaning varies by person, situation, and culture.

Facial expression

Can communicate emotions and reactions. Some expressions are relatively universal, but interpretation still depends on context and culture.

Gesture

Hand, arm, or body movements that can add meaning. Meanings can differ across cultures and situations.

Posture

Can communicate attitudes, involvement, confidence, and other impressions. Interpret it with other cues and the context.

Movement

Can communicate energy, attention, confidence, or discomfort. Do not interpret it in isolation.

Proxemics

Communication through physical space and distance between people. Appropriate distance varies by relationship, culture, and situation.

Vocalics

How something is said—such as volume, pitch, emphasis, and rate—rather than the literal words.

Appearance

Sends nonverbal messages about professionalism, role, identity, and expectations. Interpret it in relation to the workplace and situation rather than stereotypes.

Verbal/nonverbal congruence

Occurs when verbal, vocal, and nonverbal messages support one another. When they conflict, receivers may pay more attention to nonverbal/vocal cues and become uncertain.

Professional presence

The overall impression created through verbal, vocal, nonverbal, appearance, and interaction behaviors. The textbook emphasizes immediacy behaviors such as appropriate eye contact, relaxed posture, natural gestures, and vocal expressiveness.

Communication apprehension

Anxiety or fear associated with communicating. It can affect participation, confidence, and performance.

Digital communication challenges

Digital channels can remove visual and vocal cues, delay feedback, create ambiguity, and make messages easier to misinterpret, although technology can also improve speed and access.

Technology overload

When the volume or constant presence of digital communication becomes distracting or difficult to manage, reducing attention and effectiveness.

Channel limitations

Every channel has limits. Face-to-face communication is rich and provides immediate feedback; email, text, and other asynchronous channels carry fewer codes and can be easier to misinterpret.

Professional technology Use

Use technology intentionally and professionally. Match the channel to the message, audience, urgency, sensitivity, and need for feedback.

AI-assisted communication responsibilities

The textbook does not specifically discuss modern generative AI. Use your instructor's course materials for the AI-specific portion. The textbook's broader principles still apply: accuracy, ethics, audience awareness, appropriate channel selection, proofreading, and responsibility for the final message.

Audience analysis

Considering who will receive the message, what they know, what they need, their attitudes, expectations, and likely reactions. Adapt the message to the reader.

Purpose

What the message is intended to accomplish. Identify purpose before writing so content, organization, tone, and detail support the goal.

Professional tone

Respectful, appropriate, reader-centered language suited to the situation. Avoid unnecessarily emotional, rude, vague, or overly casual wording.

Clarity

Expressing ideas so the reader can understand them accurately. Use specific language, logical organization, familiar words, and clear sentences.

Conciseness

Communicating needed information without unnecessary words, repetition, or filler. Concise does not mean leaving out necessary information.

Direct Organization

States the main point or purpose early, followed by supporting details. Useful when the audience is receptive or needs efficient access to the main information.

Indirect organization

Provides relevant context or reasons before presenting the main point. Appropriate when the audience may resist, react negatively, or need background before a sensitive conclusion.

Bad-news messages

Communicate unfavorable information while maintaining professionalism and the relationship. Give appropriate explanation/context, state the decision clearly, and do not hide the actual message.

Email professionalism

Use a useful subject line, appropriate greeting, clear purpose, concise organization, professional tone, accurate information, and careful proofreading. Email is especially useful for follow-up, summaries, and documenting decisions.

Subject lines

Should tell the reader clearly and specifically what the email is about so the message can be prioritized and understood.

Reader-centered writing

Focuses on what the audience needs to know and how the message affects or helps the reader. Adapt wording, organization, detail, and tone to the audience.

Editing and proofreading

Editing improves content, clarity, organization, tone, and conciseness. Proofreading checks the final message for grammar, spelling, punctuation, formatting, names, dates, and other errors.