IB Psychology - Learning and Cognition 3.0

Learnt behaviour

acquired through our experiences

Innate behaviour

genetic programs within us → harder to change (more rigid)

Classical conditioning

a type of learning, indirect, in which an initially neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). When this happens over time, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). When the previously neutral stimulus is presented, there is a conditioned response (CR), as if the UCS were presented.

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that prompts a natural, unlearned response

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus in the environment that does not lead to any natural response → NS becomes a CS after conditioning

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that used to be neutral → became associated with a response because it was connected to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

A response learned by pairing a neutral + an unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

when the conditioned response fades (as it is no longer pairing neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus together)

Example of classical conditioning

Study to pair with classical conditioning

Little Albert

Little Albert aim

how classical conditioning could be used to create fear response in a young child

Little Albert method and results

They paired a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) with the presence of a white rat (neutral stimulus), causing Albert to fear the rat (conditioned response) without the noise

Aversion therapy (based on classical conditioning)

treatment based in classical conditioning, where an unpleasant stimulus is paired with an undesirable behaviour to reduce/eliminate behaviour

Example of aversion therapy

a person trying to quit nail biting might be given a nail polish that taste horrible every time they put their fingers in their mouth → over time, the negative association is intended to prevent behaviour

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences (rewards or punishment)

Thorndike’s law of effect

Response followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated → responses followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

Difference between operant and classical conditioning

Classical conditioning	Operant conditioning
stimulus comes first, then the behaviour direct learning	behaviour comes first, then the stimulus indirect learning

Reinforcement

increases behaviour

Positive reinforcement

A reward (giving something pleasant) to encourage the continuation of a behaviour → e.g. saying ‘good job’

Negative reinforcement

removal of an aversive stimulus (something negative) to encourage the continuation of a behaviour → e.g. removing dog’s leash

Punishment

decreases behaviour

Positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus to discourage the continuation of a behaviour → e.g. receiving fines

Negative punishment

Taking away a reward to discourage the continuation of a behaviour → e.g. removing screen time

Types of scheduling for reinforcement

1. fixed scheduling

2. variable scheduling

Fixed scheduling

a reinforcement after a specific number of responses/specific amount of time → e.g. getting a free coffee after every 10 purchase

Variable scheduling

you expect a reward you don’t know when you will get it → e.g. you keep checking your social media with the hope that you will get “like”

How to answer a 1b Q that doesn’t come with a lengthy scenario

1. clear understanding of theory

2. an example of it

3. explanation why that particular strategy could work

An example of this type of Q1b

Chris is highly disruptive in class. He talks a lot with his friends, often making it difficult for others to focus on the teacher's presentation. Explain how operant conditioning could be used to change Chris's behaviour

Social learning theory (SLT)

emphasizes that learning (indirect) can occur without direct experience, relying instead on attention, retention, reproduction + motivation to guide the observational learning process

4 cognitive mechanism for SLT

1. attention

2. retention

3. reproduction

4. motivation

attention

learner must pay attention to the model to learn a behaviour

Several factors may influence our level of attention → e.g. attractiveness, relevance, other distractions, fatigue + observer’s cognitive abilities

retention

observer must be able to remember the behaviour that has been observed to produce it immediately/after some time

potential

individual must have the physical and/or mental ability to replicate the behaviour

Key aspect → self-efficacy; the individual has to feel that they are able to do this if they try

motivation

individual must want to replicate the behaviour that they have observed

Key aspect → vicarious reinforcement → if they see model rewarded for the behaviour, observer most likely to imitate it

Example of SLT

• John paid attention to when his brother pushed another child (he noticed it because he looks up to him)

• John then retained this information

• John was potentially capable of reproducing the behaviour (pushing a classmate over)

• John was motivated to show his aggressive behaviour because his brother had got sweets off the child he had pushed

Reciprocal determinism

individuals are influenced by the environment + also influence the environment themselves

Society + culture can influence an individual but individuals can also influence culture/society → results in new cultural + societal norms

What to mention when writing about SLT

1. indirect learning

2. 4 cognitive mechanisms

3. reciprocal determinism

Factors influencing limitation of models

• consistency

• identification with model

• liking a model

• behaviour is rewarded

consistency

If the model behaves consistently across situations, then the observer will be more likely to imitate it

identification with model

we show an in-group bias when deciding whether to imitate a model

liking a model

Warm + friendly models are more likely to be imitated

behaviour is rewarded

If the model's behaviour is rewarded, we are more likely to imitate the behaviour to receive same reward

Bandura et al (1961) aims

1. wanted to see if children would imitate aggression modeled by an adult

2. wanted to know if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models

Bandura et al (1961) IVs for first aim

• agressive model

• non-aggressive model

• no model (control group)

Bandura et al (1961) IVs for second aim

• male role model

• female role model

Bandura et al (1961) results

children in the aggressive model condition displayed more aggressive responses than the children in the non-aggressive model condition

Cognitive mechanisms in Bandura et al

1. Attention – children had to pay attention to the model's behaviour → watched an adult act aggressively towards Bobo doll, making behaviour more engaging

2. Retention – children needed to remember what they saw → mentally stored aggressive actions → e.g. hitting walking so they could recall later

3. Reproduction – children must be able to replicate the behaviour → when given chance, physically imitated the aggressive actions towards Bobo doll

4. Motivation – must be reason/incentive to perform behaviour → kids more likely to imitate as role model was rewarded/least not punished

Strengths for SLT

• the theory is robust → can be applied to explain a lot of different behaviours

• several variables that may increase the likelihood that a behavior will be imitated → increases the theory's predictive power

Limitations for SLT

• difficult to test under naturalistic conditions → difficult to control for extraneous variables

• Several constructs → e.g. motivation + attention level are difficult to measure

• has a strong bias toward the "nurture" side of the argument → today, psychologists argue that social learning interacts with our physiology, leading to behaviour → on its own, social learning cannot explain individual differences

Disinhibition

lack of inhibitory control (not able to stop/delay impulses) → e.g. when a child shows ‘naughty’ behaviour + adult disciplines them aggressively, so it teaches child more aggressive behaviour

Motivation

a person’s willingness to exert effort for their own goals

Types of motivation

• intrinsic

• extrinsic

Intrinsic motivation

• an incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives from pleasure in the activity itself → e.g. genuine interest

• Example of goals: passion, fun, purpose

Extrinsic motivation

• to engage in a specific activity, especially motivation arising from the expectation of punishment/reward → e.g. job in exchange for salary

• Example of goals: promotion, benefits

If someone is intrinsically motivated

enjoys learning for its own sake → more likely to see effort as valuable + reinforce a growth mindset → has a belief that improvement is possible + leads to even greater persistence

Growth mindset

believes abilities can be developed

If someone is extrinsically motivated

failure can feel like a sign of personal inadequacy rather than part of the learning process → reinforces a fixed mindset → makes someone less willing to push through difficulties/take risks

Fixed mindset

believes abilities are innate + unchangable

Bidirectional ambiguity in fixed minset

growth mindset fuels motivation + strong motivation reinforces a belief in growth

Mindset theory

explains how our beliefs about intelligence + ability influence levels of motivation in learning + how successful it is → motivation and mindset are intertwined

Growth mindset fosters intrinsic motivation

more likely to stay motivated since they believe in growth

Fixed mindset fosters extrinsic motivation

people rely on external rewards → e.g. grades, praise

Strengths of mindset theory

• Simple + clear to apply in real world setting → e.g. school, workplace

• Research shows that small shifts to growth mindset leads to better effort, greater resilience + improved achievement

• Empowers individuals by showing abilities are not fixed → inspire people to take control of their own learning + growth

Limitations of mindset theory

• Reductionist approach → oversimplification of motivation by reducing a complex process to 2 categories

• Motivation is influenced by many other factors → e.g. emotions, social environment, self-esteem, cultural expectation + personal goals

• Growth mindset can be interpreted in different ways → hard to measure consistently

• Participant variables → personality, prior experiences + cultural background can affect how (or if) mindset influences behaviour

• Not many research have replicated the findings successfully

Measurement of motivation

• Self-report questionnaires - measures individuals’ agreement with statements involving growth vs fixed mindset statements in standardised assessments

• Behavioural observations - observe how people react to challenges, failure + effort in learning tasks

• Brain imaging techniques - e.g. fMRI + EEG help researchers explore how mindset affects learning + motivation at a neurological level → those with growth mindset show more brain activity in the ACC when making mistakes → suggesting they engage in more problem solving skills. Those with a fixed mindset show less neural activity → indicates they may ignore/avoid processing mistakes → amygdala activated (for emotions → e.g. frustration, fear of failure)

Limitations of measurements

Self-report questionnaires

• Social desirability bias → people may respond in a way that seems positive rather than reflecting their true belief

• Situational variation → someone may have a growth mindset in 1 area but a fixed mindset in another

• Interpretation of the scale → may interpret the scale differently

Behavioural observations

• Reactivity → Ps may act differently because they know that they are being observed

Brain imaging techniques

• Expensive + difficult to use in large-scale studies → limits generalizability → low ecological validity

• Not practical for everyday mindset assessments

Self - determination theory (SDT)

proposes that motivation depends on 3 basic psychological needs to satisfy

SDT - 3 psychological needs

1. Autonomy → feeling of choice + control over your actions

2. Competence → feeling that you are capable of performing an activity → leads to greater sense of self-confidence + increase in persistence

3. Relatedness → feeling connected to + supported by others → a sense of belonging