types of observation

• what are the four types of observation

• non- participant observation

• participant observation

• overt observation

• covert observation

• However, actual research does not always fit neatly into these categories of types of observation.

• For example, William Whyte's (1955) study of 'Street Corner Society' was s___-o____ (partly open). He revealed his real purpose to a key member of the group, Doc, but not to others.

• in sociology, most observation is what

• However, which type of sociologists in particular do occasionally use s___ o____, which is normally non-participant. Here, the researcher uses a s____ o____ schedule to categorise systematically what happens

• what is The schedule?The researcher adds up the number of c___each event occurs. This produces q_____ data, from which p____ and correlations can then be established.

• Finally, observation may be used in c____ with other methods. For example, when interviewing, the researcher may observe what

• However, actual research does not always fit neatly into these categories of types of observation.

• For example, William Whyte's (1955) study of 'Street Corner Society' was semi-overt (partly open). He revealed his real purpose to a key member of the group, Doc, but not to others.

• in sociology, most observation is unstructured participant observation.

• However, positivist sociologists in particular do occasionally use structured observation, which is normally non-participant. Here, the researcher uses a structured observational schedule to categorise systematically what happens

• The schedule is a pre-determined list of the types of behaviour or situations the sociologist is interested in. Each time an instance of such behaviour occurs, the sociologist records it on the schedule, for example, how often boys and girls in a nursery play with particular toys. The researcher adds up the number of times each event occurs. This produces quantitative data, from which patterns and correlations can then be established.

• Finally, observation may be used in conjunction with other methods. For example, when interviewing, the researcher may observe interviewees' body language to gauge whether or not they are telling the truth.

what is non- participant observation

The researcher simply observes the group or event without taking part in it.
For example, they may use a two-way mirror to observe children playing.

strengths of non- participant observation

• ✓ Reduces researcher bias – The researcher does not get i____, so they are less likely to i____ participants’ behaviour or i___ e___ subjectively.

• ✓ More o____ data – Observing from a d___ allows the researcher to r___ what actually happens rather than relying on participants’ self-reports.

• ✓ Safer or more practical in some settings – Non-participant observation can be useful when it would be d____, d____, or unethical for the researcher to take part.

• ✓ Useful for studying n____ behaviour – Participants may act more n___ if the researcher is just observing rather than interacting with them.

strengths of non- participant observation

• ✓ Reduces researcher bias – The researcher does not get involved, so they are less likely to influence participants’ behaviour or interpret events subjectively.

• ✓ More objective data – Observing from a distance allows the researcher to record what actually happens rather than relying on participants’ self-reports.

• ✓ Safer or more practical in some settings – Non-participant observation can be useful when it would be difficult, dangerous, or unethical for the researcher to take part.

• ✓ Useful for studying natural behaviour – Participants may act more naturally if the researcher is just observing rather than interacting with them.

limitations of non- participant observation

• ✘ Lack of i___ into participants’ perspectives – The researcher may miss the m___, m____, or f____ behind participants’ actions.

• ✘ Potential for m____ – Observing from a d____ can lead to m____ about what behaviour actually signifies

• ✘ Limited access – Some settings or interactions may be difficult to observe without participating.

• ✘ e____ issues – Participants may not be aware they are being observed, raising concerns about c____ and p____.

limitations of non- participant observation

• ✘ Lack of insight into participants’ perspectives – The researcher may miss the meanings, motives, or feelings behind participants’ actions.

• ✘ Potential for misinterpretation – Observing from a distance can lead to misunderstandings about what behaviour actually signifies

• ✘ Limited access – Some settings or interactions may be difficult to observe without participating.

• ✘ Ethical issues – Participants may not be aware they are being observed, raising concerns about consent and privacy.

what is participant observation

The researcher actually takes part in an event or the everyday life of the group while observing it.

✓ strengths of participant observation- validity

• What people say they do when asked in a questionnaire, and what they actually do in real life, are not always the same thing.

• ✓- By contrast, by actually o____ people we can obtain rich q____ data that provides a picture of how they really live.

• Supporters of participant observation argue that this is the method's main strength, and most of its other advantages are linked to this.

✓ strengths of participant observation- validity

• What people say they do when asked in a questionnaire, and what they actually do in real life, are not always the same thing.

• ✓- By contrast, by actually observing people we can obtain rich qualitative data that provides a picture of how they really live.

• Supporters of participant observation argue that this is the method's main strength, and most of its other advantages are linked to this.

✓ strengths of participant observation- insight

• what is The best way to truly understand what something is like is what?

• Sociologists call this personal or subjective understanding 'what', a G___ word meaning 'e____', or u___ that comes from putting yourself in another person's place.

• ✓Participant observation allows the researcher to gain e____ through p___ experience.

• By actually living as a m___ of a g____, we can gain insight into ahat

• We can come to understand their 'life-world' as they themselves understand it. This closeness to people's lived reality means that participant observation can give uniquely valid, authentic data.

✓ strengths of participant observation- insight

• The best way to truly understand what something is like is to experience it for ourselves.

• Sociologists call this personal or subjective understanding 'verstehen', a German word meaning 'empathy', or understanding that comes from putting yourself in another person's place.

• ✓Participant observation allows the researcher to gain empathy through personal experience.

• By actually living as a member of a group, we can gain insight into their way of life, their meanings and viewpoints, their values and problems.

• We can come to understand their 'life-world' as they themselves understand it. This closeness to people's lived reality means that participant observation can give uniquely valid, authentic data.

✓ strengths of participant observation- flexibility

• research methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews involve beginning the research with a specific hypothesis and pre-set questions. Even before starting to collect the data, therefore, the researcher has already decided what questions are important. - what is the problem with this ?

  ✓- By contrast, participant observation is a much more flexible method.

• Rather than starting with a f____ h___, it allows the sociologist to enter the situation with a relatively o___ m____ about what they will find.

• As n____ s____ are encountered, n____ e____ can be formulated and the sociologist can change d____ to follow them up there and then. In this way, any theories that the researcher produces are 'g____' in r___ l___

• This open-mindedness allows the researcher to discover things that other m___ may m___.

✓ strengths of participant observation- flexibility

• research methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews involve beginning the research with a specific hypothesis and pre-set questions. Even before starting to collect the data, therefore, the researcher has already decided what questions are important. The obvious problem with this is that the questions the researcher thinks are important may not be the same as the ones the subjects think are important. This is especially true when starting to study a topic of which we have little or no previous knowledge.

  ✓- By contrast, participant observation is a much more flexible method.

• Rather than starting with a fixed hypothesis, it allows the sociologist to enter the situation with a relatively open mind about what they will find.

• As new situations are encountered, new explanations can be formulated and the sociologist can change direction to follow them up there and then. In this way, any theories that the researcher produces are 'grounded' in real life.

• This open-mindedness allows the researcher to discover things that other methods may miss.

✓ strengths of participant observation- practical advantages

• Sometimes participant observation may be the only v___ method for studying certain groups, particularly those engaged in activities that wider s____ sees as d___ or d____.

• Such groups are likely to be suspicious of what. As L____ Y____ (1973) points out, a teenage gang is likely to see researchers who come armed with questionnaires as what

• By contrast, because participant observation enables the sociologist to build a r___ with the group and gain its t____, it has proved a successful method of studying what type of 'outsider' groups

✓ strengths of participant observation- practical advantages

• Sometimes participant observation may be the only viable method for studying certain groups, particularly those engaged in activities that wider society sees as deviant or disreputable.

• Such groups are likely to be suspicious of outsiders who come asking questions. As Lewis Yablonsky (1973) points out, a teenage gang is likely to see researchers who come armed with questionnaires as the unwelcome representatives of authority.

• By contrast, because participant observation enables the sociologist to build a rapport with the group and gain its trust, it has proved a successful method of studying delinquent gangs, football hooligans, thieves, drug users, religious sects and other 'outsider' groups

✘ limitations of participant observation - practical disadvantages

• ✘- It is very t____-c____. For example, Whyte's study took him how long to complete.

• ✘- The researcher needs to be t____ so as to be able to r____ aspects of a situation that are s_____ s____ and worth further attention. Also it It requires o____ and iffff skills that not everyone possesses.

• ✘- It can be personally s____ and d____, especially if covert.

• ✘- Personal characteristics such as a___, g____ or e___ may restrict what kinds of groups can be studied. As Downes and Rock put it, 'not everyone would pass uneventfully into the world of ahat

• ✘- Many groups may not wish to be studied in this way, and some have the power to make a___ difficult. This is one reason why participant observation often focuses on relatively p____ groups who are less able to resist being studied, such as petty criminals.

✘ limitations of participant observation - practical disadvantages

• ✘- It is very time-consuming. For example, Whyte's study took him four years to complete.

• ✘- The researcher needs to be trained so as to be able to recognise aspects of a situation that are sociologically significant and worth further attention. Also it It requires observational and interpersonal skills that not everyone possesses.

• ✘- It can be personally stressful and demanding, especially if covert.

• ✘- Personal characteristics such as age, gender or ethnicity may restrict what kinds of groups can be studied. As Downes and Rock put it, 'not everyone would pass uneventfully into the world of punk rockers or Hell's Angels'

• ✘- Many groups may not wish to be studied in this way, and some have the power to make access difficult. This is one reason why participant observation often focuses on relatively powerless groups who are less able to resist being studied, such as petty criminals.

✘ limitations of participant observation - Ethical problems

• what are the 2 ethical issues

✘ limitations of participant observation - Ethical problems

• including deceiving people in order to obtain information about them

• participating in illegal or immoral activities in the course of sociological research.

✘ limitations of participant observation - Representativeness

• Sociologists who use q____ survey methods usually study what type of sample that provide a sound basis for making generalisations.

• By contrast, in participant observation studies, the group studied is usually very s___ and the 'sample' is often selected h____, for example by a chance encounter with someone who turns out to be a key informant.

• This does not provide a sound basis for making g____. As Downes and Rock note, although participant observation may provide valid insights into the particular group being studied, it is doubtful how far these 'i____ valid' insights are 'externally valid', that is, g___ to the wider population.

✘ limitations of participant observation - Representativeness

• Sociologists who use quantitative survey methods usually study large, carefully selected, representative samples that provide a sound basis for making generalisations.

• By contrast, in participant observation studies, the group studied is usually very small and the 'sample' is often selected haphazardly, for example by a chance encounter with someone who turns out to be a key informant.

• This does not provide a sound basis for making generalisations. As Downes and Rock note, although participant observation may provide valid insights into the particular group being studied, it is doubtful how far these 'internally valid' insights are 'externally valid', that is, generalisable to the wider population.

✘ limitations of participant observation - reliability

• what does Reliability mean

• To achieve reliability, research procedures must be s____ so that other researchers can reproduce them. give example, of how structured interviews are standardised

• By contrast, in participant observation so much depends on what that it is unlikely any other investigator would be able to r____ the original study.

• Also, because participant observation usually produces q____ data, this can make c____ with other studies difficult. As a result, it is unlikely to produce reliable data.

• why would , positivists reject participant observation

✘ limitations of participant observation - reliability

• Reliability means that if another researcher repeats the method, they will obtain the same results.

• To achieve reliability, research procedures must be standardised so that other researchers can reproduce them. For example, in structured interviews all interviewers ask the same standard questions in the same way.

• By contrast, in participant observation so much depends on the personal skills and characteristics of a lone researcher that it is unlikely any other investigator would be able to replicate the original study.

• Also, because participant observation usually produces qualitative data, this can make comparisons with other studies difficult. As a result, it is unlikely to produce reliable data.

• Positivists, who see sociology as scientific, thus reject participant observation as an unsystematic method that cannot be replicated by other researchers.

✘ limitations of participant observation - bias and lack of objectivity

Critics argue that participant observation studies lack objectivity :

• The risk of what makes it difficult to remain o____ and the sociologist may end up presenting a o___-s___ or biased view of the group.

• Sometimes, loyalty to the group or fear of reprisals leads the sociologist what This denies those who read the published study a f____ and o____ account of the research.

• Participant observation often attracts sociologists whose s___ lie with the u____. Since it is seen as an effective method for 'telling it like it is' from the actor's point of view, some of those who use it may be b____ in favour of their subjects' viewpoint. For example, Willis was accused of what

✘ limitations of participant observation - bias and lack of objectivity

Critics argue that participant observation studies lack objectivity :

• The risk of becoming too involved makes it difficult to remain objective and the sociologist may end up presenting a one-sided or biased view of the group.

• Sometimes, loyalty to the group or fear of reprisals leads the sociologist to conceal sensitive information. This denies those who read the published study a full and objective account of the research.

• Participant observation often attracts sociologists whose sympathies lie with the underdog. Since it is seen as an effective method for 'telling it like it is' from the actor's point of view, some of those who use it may be biased in favour of their subjects' viewpoint. For example, Willis was accused of presenting a romanticised account of the lads'.

✘ limitations of participant observation - validity

• why do Supporters argue participant observation is strong in validity ? why do Positivists, however, disagree with this claim?

• Supporters of participant observation claim that it does not impose what?, but positivists argue that in reality the researcher selects what f___ they think are w____ r___, and that these are likely to fit in with the researcher's p__-e____ v___ and p___.

• A further threat to validity comes from what: the very p____ of the observer may make the subjects act d____. This defeats the main aim of participant observation, to produce a 'n____' account of human behaviour.

✘ limitations of participant observation - validity

• Supporters argue participant observation is strong in validity because it lets sociologists be insiders (verstehen). Positivists, however, disagree with this claim. They argue that the findings from such studies are merely the subjective and biased impressions of the observer. Rather than truly 'telling it like it is', participant observation simply tells it as the observer sees it.

• Supporters of participant observation claim that it does not impose the sociologist's own categories and ideas on the facts, but positivists argue that in reality the researcher selects what facts they think are worth recording, and that these are likely to fit in with the researcher's pre-existing views and prejudices.

• A further threat to validity comes from the Hawthorne Effect: the very presence of the observer may make the subjects act differently. This defeats the main aim of participant observation, to produce a 'naturalistic' account of human behaviour.

✘ limitations of participant observation - lack of a concept of structure

• why do Interactionists favour the use of participant observation?

• However why do structural sociologists such as Marxists and functionalists see this as inadequate?

• In the structuralist view, therefore, seeing things only through the actors' eyes will never give us the complete picture. For example, if the actors are unaware of the structural forces shaping their behaviour, then their own account of their lives, revealed through participant observation, will give us at best only a partial view.

✘ limitations of participant observation - lack of a concept of structure

• Interactionists favour the use of participant observation. They see society as constructed through the small-scale, face-to-face interactions of its members and the meanings that individual actors give to their situation. In their view, micro-level interactions and meanings at first hand. participant observation is a useful tool for examining these

• However, structural sociologists such as Marxists and functionalists see this as inadequate. They argue that because it focuses on the 'micro' level of actors' meanings, participant observation research tends to ignore the wider structural forces that shape our behaviour, such as class inequality or the norms and values into which we are socialised.

• In the structuralist view, therefore, seeing things only through the actors' eyes will never give us the complete picture. For example, if the actors are unaware of the structural forces shaping their behaviour, then their own account of their lives, revealed through participant observation, will give us at best only a partial view.

what is covert observation

• The researcher makes their true dentity and purpose known to those being studied. The sociologist is open about what they are doing.

strengths of covert observation

• ✓ It avoids the ethical (moral) problem of what

• ✓ It allows the observer to ask the kind of naive but important questions that only an o____ could ask. For example, the researcher could ask a gang member, “Why do you rob and steal?”

• ✓ The observer can take notes o____.

• ✓ It allows the researcher to use i____ m____ to check insights derived from observations.

strengths of covert observation

• ✓ It avoids the ethical (moral) problem of obtaining information by deceit and, when studying deviant groups, that of being expected to join in their activities.

• ✓ It allows the observer to ask the kind of naive but important questions that only an outsider could ask. For example, the researcher could ask a gang member, “Why do you rob and steal?”

• ✓ The observer can take notes openly.

• ✓ It allows the researcher to use interview methods to check insights derived from observations.

limitations of covert observation

• ✘- A group may refuse the what, or may p____ them from seeing everything.

• ✘- It risks creating the H______ E____, where those who know they are being observed begin to behave d_____ as a result. This undermines the v___ of the data.

limitations of covert observation

• ✘- A group may refuse the researcher permission to observe them, or may prevent them from seeing everything.

• ✘- It risks creating the Hawthorne Effect, where those who know they are being observed begin to behave differently as a result. This undermines the validity of the data.

what is covert observation

• The study is carried out 'under cover. The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied. The researcher takes on a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

strengths of covert observation

• ✓ Participants behave n____, as they are u___ they are being studied – reducing the risk of the H____ effect (people changing behaviour when observed). This is particularly true where people are engaged in activities that they would rather keep s____. As L____ H___ (1970), who studied what, notes, there is only one way to observe s____ behaviour and that is to:

  'p____ to be in the s____ b____ with those engaging in it.'

• ✓ It allows access to c____ or d____ groups (e.g. g____, c____, c____ n___) who might not allow what?

• ✓ It can provide more v____ and a____ data, since behaviour is observed in its r___ c___ without i____ from the researcher’s presence.

• ✓ The researcher can see h____ or p____ behaviours that participants might not reveal in interviews or questionnaires.

strengths of covert observation

• ✓ Participants behave naturally, as they are unaware they are being studied – reducing the risk of the Hawthorne effect (people changing behaviour when observed). This is particularly true where people are engaged in activities that they would rather keep secret. As Laud Humphreys (1970), who studied gay men's sexual encounters in public toilets, notes, there is only one way to observe secretive behaviour and that is to:

  'pretend to be in the same boat with those engaging in it.'

• ✓ It allows access to closed or deviant groups (e.g. gangs, cults, criminal networks) who might not allow an open researcher in.

• ✓ It can provide more valid and authentic data, since behaviour is observed in its real context without influence from the researcher’s presence.

• ✓ The researcher can see hidden or private behaviours that participants might not reveal in interviews or questionnaires.

✘- limitations of covert observation

• 〤- it requires the researcher to keep up an a____, and may call for d____ k___ of the group's way of life even before joining it. There is always a risk of one's cover being 'b___' by even a t____ mistake.

• 〤- the sociologist cannot usually take notes o___ and must rely on m____ and the opportunity to do what Both L____ F____ et al (1956), studying a r____ s___ and J___ D____ (1977), studying t___ among b___ d____, had to use t____ as a place for recording their observations. In Ditton's case, this eventually aroused s____.

• 〤- the researcher cannot ask n___ but i____ questions, or combine observation with other methods, such as i___.

• 〤- although pretending to be an insider rather than an outsider reduces the risk of the Hawthorne Effect, what is the problem with the addition of a new member

✘- limitations of covert observation

• 〤- it requires the researcher to keep up an act, and may call for detailed knowledge of the group's way of life even before joining it. There is always a risk of one's cover being 'blown' by even a trivial mistake.

• 〤- the sociologist cannot usually take notes openly and must rely on memory and the opportunity to write them in secret. Both Leon Festinger et al (1956), studying a religious sect and Jason Ditton (1977), studying theft among bread deliverymen, had to use toilets as a place for recording their observations. In Ditton's case, this eventually aroused suspicion.

• 〤- the researcher cannot ask naïve but important questions, or combine observation with other methods, such as interviews.

• 〤- although pretending to be an insider rather than an outsider reduces the risk of the Hawthorne Effect, the addition of a new member (the researcher) can still change the group's behaviour, thus reducing validity.

✘- limitations of covert observation- ethical issues

• 〤- It is i___ to d____ people, obtaining information by pretending to what- Researchers should obtain the i____ c___ of their subjects, and reveal the p____ of the study and the use to which its f____ will be put. With covert observation, this cannot normally be done, at least until a____.

• 〤- Covert observers may have to l____ about their reasons for l____ the group at the end of their r___. Others, such as Patrick, simply a____ the group without e____. Critics argue that this is u___.

• 〤- They may have to participate in what as part of their 'cover' role.

• 〤- Similarly, as w___ to such activities, they may have a moral or legal duty to do what

✘- limitations of covert observation- ethical issues

• 〤- It is immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or 'in the same boat' -Researchers should obtain the informed consent of their subjects, and reveal the purpose of the study and the use to which its findings will be put. With covert observation, this cannot normally be done, at least until afterwards.

• 〤- Covert observers may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group at the end of their research. Others, such as Patrick, simply abandon the group without explanation. Critics argue that this is unethical.

• 〤- They may have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their 'cover' role.

• 〤- Similarly, as witnesses to such activities, they may have a moral or legal duty to intervene or to report them to the police.