AP Psychology Unit 1 Test Study Guide

Sequential Processing

Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

Parallel Processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separare conscious and unconscious tracks

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Blindsight

A condition in wich a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Alpha Waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms. In response to light, it adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Hypnagogic Sensations

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness —- as distinct from unconscious resulting from a coma, general anaesthesia, or hibernation

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Delta Waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

Manifest Content

The apparent and remembered story line of a dream

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling/staying asleep

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dreams.

Latent Content

The unconscious drives and wishes of dreams that would be threatening if expressed directly

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Mutations

A random error in gene replication that leads to change.

Identical Twins

Individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two geentically identical organisms

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relavtive power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

Natural Selection

The principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generationsG

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism

Epigenetics

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Fraternal Twins

Individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than odinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split Brain

A connection resulting from surgery that seperates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Levels of Analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Lesion

Tissue destruction.

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG

A brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

CT Scan

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET

Technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy.

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. scans show brain function as well as structure.

Hindbrain

Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.

Midbrain

Found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

Forebrain

Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

Brainstem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic System

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying belo2) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgments).

Parietal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

Motor Cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

1. Hypothalamus

2. Thalamus

3. Cerebrum

4. Cerebellum

5. Spinal Cord

6. Medulla

7. Pons

8. Midbrain

9. Brainstem

Label these parts!

1. Parietal Lobe

2. Occipital Lobe

3. Cerebellum

4. Spinal Cord

5. Temporal Lobe

6. Frontal Lobe

Label these regions!

Refractory Period

In neural processing, a brief resting puase that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot ocur unti the axon returns to its resting sttae

Axon

The segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles and glands

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

all-or-none response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

endocrine system

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

cell body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

endorphines

“Morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

dendrite

A neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up neural functions.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Addiction

An everyday term for complusive susbtance use that continues despite harmfu consequences

Psychoactive Drugs

A chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

Hallucinogens

Psychedelis “mind-manifesting” drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Substance Use Disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disprution

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing moneory and judgement

Near-Death Experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush of death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and large doses before experiencing the drug’s effect