Phys EXAM 3

hypothalamus

pituitary gland

name any two primary endocrine organs:

heart

name one secondary endocrine organ:

regulates/ maintains the rate of metabolism

thyroid hormone effect:

regulates the response to stress (raises blood glucose level)

cortisol effect:

stimulates growth (release of insulin-like growth factors)

growth hormone effect:

regulates fright/fight/flight response (raises blood glucose level)

epinephrine effect:

lower glucose level in blood

insulin effect:

raises level of glucose in blood

glucagon effect:

hormone level in blood

receptor type (or number)

signal transduction mechanism

hormone interaction

identify 4 facotrs which affect the magnitude of a target cell’s response to a hormone:

degradation

diffusion

reuptake

identify 3 factors contributing to the removal of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft:

myelination

diameter

name 2 properties of an axon which affect the rate of propagation of an action potential:

after-hyperpolarization

a more negative membrane potential in an axon than at rest; it occurs at the end of an action potential and results from opening of K+ channels, inactivation of Na+ channels

absolute refractory period

a pase during an action potential when no stimulus, regardless of strength, can generate a second action potential

frequency coding

signalling of the duration or intensity of stimulus by the rate at which action potentials are generateda

axon hillock

site where axon leaves cell body and action potentials are initiated

anaxonic

possessing no apparent axon

axoaxonic

communicating from the axon terminal one neuron to the acon of another neuron (responsible for presynaptic modulation)

ganglion

a cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

dermatome

a sensory region of the skin served by one spina nerve

cerebellum

its function is motor coordination, balance

brainstem

its function is to process information from 10/12 pairs of cranial nerves and connects the forebrain and cerebellum to spinal cord

cranial nerves

its function is sensory input and motor control at the head (and viscera)

motor cortex

its function is voluntary movement (directs skeletal muscle movement)

somatosensory cortex

its function its to translate sensory input to perceptions and sensation (somethetic and prorioceptive)

basal nuclei

its function is to nhibit unwated movements

ependymal cell

separates CNS from CSF (lines ventricles, central canal)

neuron

produces action potentials, communicates via electrical, chemical synapses (and neurohormones)

astrocyte

removes neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft, maintains electrolyte compotition of IS

microglial cell

phagocytosis of bacteria, dead or injured cells or debris

oligodendrocyte

myelination of axon in CNS

schawnn cell

myelination of axon in PNS

spinal

in which class does the muscle spindle reflex belong when the basis of classification is the level of neural processing

monosynaptic

in which class does the muscle spindle reflex belong when the basis of classification is the number of synapses in the pathway

astrocytes

promotes formation of the blood-brain barrier

ependymal cells

aids in the production of cerebrospinal fluid

microglia

removes bacteria via phagocytosis

oligodendrocytes

increases the speed of commincation through white matter of the brain

astrocytes

removes excess neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft and excess potassium from the extracellular fluid

cranium (bone)

maninges

cerebrospinal fluid

name 3 structures that physically support/ protect the central nervous system:

cerebral corted (frontal lobe)

this part of the brain is responsible for ideas and personality

cerebral cortex (frontal lobe)

this part of the brain is responsible for initiation of voluntary movement

cerebral cortex (occipital lobe)

this part of the brain is responsible for vision and visual processing

thalamus

this part of the brain is responsible for sensory relay to the cerebral cortex (except sense fo smell)

hypothalamus

this part of the brain is responsible for linking nervous and endocrine systems, and regulating circadian rhythm

glucose

which biomolecule is the main source of energy for the brain?

tight junctions

formation of the blood-brain barrier depends on the presence of ____ between capillary endothelial cells

one spinal nerve (left side)

what has been damage when numbness is one dermatome on the left side of the body

spinal cord

what has been damage when numbness throughout the lower half of the body

cerebral cortex (right frontal lobe)

what has been damage when inability to move the left side of the body

cerebellum

what has been damage when loss of motor coordination, with tremor of intent

basal nuclei

what has been damage when parkinson’s disease, with resting tremor

basal nuclei (pathways to thalamus)

what has been damage when hutington’s disease, with involuntary jerking of limbs

pons

what has been damage when locked-in syndrom (no movement except eyes, no loss of consciousness)

association areas

“primary” areas of the cerebral cortex handle one specific function, but ____ integrate different types of information

afferent and efferent axons are bundled together

spinal nerves are described as “mixed nerves” because _____

the spinal cord; the brain

the brain; to the spinal cord

ascending tracts conduct information from ____ to ____, and descending tracts conduct information from ___ to ____

cerebrospinal fluid

its major function it nutrient supply (bathing the CNS), waste removal, and shock absorption

cerebral cortex (ideas, emotions, initiation of movement)

name a major location and a mjor function of gray matter in the cerebrum

spinal; innate; monosynaptic

the muscle spindle stretch reflex is classified as ____ (based on its level of neural processing), ____(based on its developmental pattern), and ____ (based on the number of synapses in its pathway)

the presynaptic cell releases mroe neurotransmitter

the postsynaptic cell becomes more sensitive to the neurotransmitter (larger EPSPs)

long-term potentiation involves an increase in the strength of a synaptic connection via two mechanisms. what are they?

spinal cord

brainstem

thalamus

cerebral cortex

the general pathway for sensory system includes: the first-order neurons, which form synapses in the ____ or ____, the second-order neurons, which form synapses in the ___, and the third-order neurons, which form synapses in the _____

central nervouse system

the afferent division of the nervous system transmits information from the periphery to the _____

visceral receptors; somatosensory system; special senses

information from the internal environment is received by the _____, and information from the external environment is recieved by the ____ and the ____

sensory receptors

are soecialized endings of afferent neurons or separate cells that release a transmitter to an afferent neuron

sensory unit

____includes a single afferent neuron and all of the receptors associated with it

modality; receptor potential

each receptor responds to a stimulus of a particular form, known as a ____, and converts it to a graded potential called a _____

adaptation

if the stimulus of a receptor potential is prolonged, then the response declines, a process known as _____

intensity; location

the stimulus ____ is coded by the frequency of action potentials, whereas stimulus ____ is coded on the basis of receptive fields

lateral inhibition

in the latter case, the degree of overlap of receptive fields influences acuity, because stimulation of a receptor in the skin inhibits second-order neurons in nearby pathways, a phenomenon known as _____

mechanoreceptors

thermoreceptors

nociceptors

3 classes of receptors in the skin:

inhibitory interneuron

according to gate-control theory, an ascending pain signal can be weakened by stimulation of an ____ by collateral axons from skin mechanoreceptors

inhibitory interneuron; enkephalin

endogenous analgesia involves a descending signal, leading to the stimulation of an ____, which releases the neurotransmitter _____

lens

myopia, hyperopia, prebyopia, astigmatism and cataract all involve defects in which part of the eye?

cornea

refraction of light (constant) or light enters eye

iris

regulates amount of light entering eye

lens

refraction of light (variable)

ciliary body

stretches zonular fibers and lens-accommodation

choroid

blood supply to interior parts of the eye

photoreceptors (rods,cones) release transmitters to bipolar cells (modulated by horizontal cells)

biopolar cells release transmitter molecules to ganglion cells (modulated by amacrine cells)

name the cells tyeps of the retina (including two modulatory types). Which of these cell types release transmitter molecules to which other cell types within the retina?

rods have greater convergence, lesser acuity and greater total numbers on the retina than cones.

Rods are more easily bleached - they function in dimmer light than cones and are all of one type. Cone function in bright light and have three types, permitting color vision

identify 4 differences between rods and cones

tympanic membrane

in the ear; sound amplification (sound from outer to middle ear)

cochlea

in the ear; sound transduction (mechanical waves to action potentials)

ossicles

in the ear; sound amplification

eustachian tube

in the ear;equilibration of air pressure between outer and middle ear

rotational; linear

the semicircular canals detect ____ acceleration, while the utricle and saccule detect ____ acceleration

otoliths; kinocilium

the ____ add mass to gelatinous material in the cupula, which increases the bending of stereocilia toward or away from the ____, leading to depolarization of the hair cells

olfactory receptor cells; basal cells

____are the only neurons in the body that are known to be replaced regularly. their precursors are _____

vision

hearing

olfaction

gustation

equilibrium

the 5 special senses:

oligodendrocyte

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with increaseing speed of communication through white matter of the CNS

schwann cell

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with increasing speed of communication through white matter of the PNS

ependymal cell

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with production of cerebrospinal fluid

microglia

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with phagocytosis of debris

astrocyte

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with formation of the blood-brain barrier

astrocyte

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with removal of excess neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft

astrocyte

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with removal of excess potassium form the extracellular fluid

astrocyte

which type of microglial cell is assocaited with dilation of blood vessels to increase nutrient supply

tight junctions

typical capillaries contain pores that permit small molecules to diffuse between the plasma and interstitial fluid. this process is prevented in the blood brain barrier by _____

cerebrospinal fluid; protein

the ____, which is the interstitial fluid of the CNS, contain roughly the same concentrations of many ions as the plasma, but it contains less than 1% as much ____, because transcytosis does not occur

bones

connective tissue membranes

cerebrospinal fluid

the CNS is physically supported by:

brain; spinal cord

bones have the carnium surrounding the ____ and the vertebral column surrounding the _____