first exam bio psych

What is biopsychology

The study of how the brain and nervous system process information and influence behavior 

Molecular

Studying molecules that are essential for brain function. How they change “How are the molecules effected in different states” 

Cellular

How neurons work together

Systems

How neural circuits work together to have specific functions

Behavior

How neural systems work together to produce behavior

Cognitive

What neural mechanisms contribute to high levels of human mental activity

 Scientific method

Scientific research is systematic, controlled, and a critical examination of the world 

Systematic

well-planned, organized 

Controlled

 Extraneous variables are taken into account and held constant. Control for external variables and minimize them as much as possible 

Independent variable

A variable that is manipulated 

Dependent variable

A variable that is affected by the manipulation. A good dependent variable is quantifiable: Measurable in some meaningful way 

Genetic manipulation

Transgenic manipulation to alter gene expression, resulting in changes in behavior the ability to delete genes or insert genes the goal is to delete the protein. Tells us about the function of that protein 

Neuropharmacology

Giving drugs/chemicals that influence brain function to see how it affects behavior (animals and humans) We can manipulate biological system by inserting chemicals or drugs that can change the brain function in some way or how a ceritan behavior might change 

Electrical stimulation

Studying how increasing the activity  of a brain region by stimulating it electrically influences behavior (animals and humans) We can take a stimulating electrode (a metal electrode that allows for heat). In a very precise location. To make those neurons fire so they can see if there is a behavior changes.

Lesion studies

Creating intentional damage to brain regions to see how it affects behavior; can be temporary or permanent (animals only) use a stimulating electrode to a volume of brain to kill the nuerons or deleivery a toxic chemical or during in a specific location to the brian. So that the chemical would kill the nuerons. And see how that effects behavior. 

Trauma studies

Studying how damage to a  brain region due to accidental injury affects behavior (humans) 

Biological variables that can be manipulated 

Genetic manipulation, Neuropharmacology, Electrical stimulation, Lesion studies, Trauma studies

Biological outcomes that can be measured

Neuroimaging, EEG, Electrophysiology, Neurochemistry, Cytology, Behavior

Neuroimaging

Non invasive ways to visualize brain structures or their activity - MRI, FMRI, PET (humans) make a manipulation to see how the brain itself changed to image it. Usually done in humans (non invasively). 

EEG

Measuring the electrical activity of the  brain, measured from the scalp - EEG, EMG (animals, humans) Going into a clinical setting where thye put a cap on you where they have electrodes that would align with your skull ( on the outside of you head) they pick up the activity of neurons in your brain. Labs that use animals to do this are looking at seizure activity. 

Electrophysiology

Measuring the electrical activity of the neurons from electrodes placed inside the brain; electrode field recordings; patch clamping (animals, new in humans) Using a very fine probe to measure the electrical activity inside the brain (invasive) individual neurons activity. 

Neurochemistry

Measuring neurotransmitters, metabolites, signaling molecules in the nervous system (animals) 

Cytology

Staining cells in the brain to explore the size and number of neurons or the connectivity of neural circuits animals Staining cells in the brain with certain dyes to understand where cells are located in a certain region 

Behavior

•  humans and animals 

Cell

Smallest unit of life; building block of an organism 

Important structures of the cell

Cytosol, Cell membrane, Nucleus, Organelles

Cytosol

The liquid inside of it that everything else is floating in 

Nucleus

It has your DNA in it (the circle purple thing)

Organelles

Mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum (ER deals with how proteins are organized in the cell)

Ribosome

(the blue dots: the making and trafficking of new proteins) 

Extracellular fluid surrounds cells

• Everything outside of the cell  

The gene, Synapsin

is expressed only in neurons (not glial cells). How would you determine if a cell is a neuron or glial cell?

Neurons

1. Main functional cells of the nervous system 

2. Electrically active cells. A way of talking to each other that requires the movement of ions  

3. Communicate with each other via electrical and chemical signals 

Glial cells 

1. “Support staff” of the nervous system 

2. Provide support, protection, nutrients, and other things 

3. Recently found to be important in more than just support 

Anatomy of neuron 

• Soma (cell body) 

• Dendrites

• Axon Hillock

• Axon

• Axon terminal 

• Myelin Sheath

• Nodes of Ranvier

Soma (cell body) 

1. Carries out cellular functions 

2. Integrates and processes signals

Dendrites

Receives signals from other neurons 

Axon Hillock

Where most of the signal integration happens  

Axon

Sends signals to the next neuron

Axon terminal 

Site of communication to next neuron 

Myelin Sheath 

1. Glial cells that wrap around the axon to make neuronal communication faster 

2. Allow for the electrical signal to go by really fast. So that the Axon terminal can pass to  the next neurons.

Nodes of Ranvier 

1. Gaps in the myelin sheath that make neuronal communication faster 

2. The space between the Myelin 

Structure

Number of neurites

Dendrites

Connections

Axon length

Function

Based on gene expression (e.g., which neurotransmitter the neuron uses)

5 different types of Glial cells 

Astocytes

Oligodendrocytes

Schwann cells

Microglia

Ependymal cells

Astrocytes

• Provide structural support to neurons 

• Help create the blood-brain barriers: 

1. Astrocyte feet wrap around capillaries and provide an additional barrier 

• Provide nutritional support 

1. Store glucose for neurons to use 

• More recently, astrocytes have been found to be involved in complex functions that are not yet well understood 

Astrocytes functions

1. Regulate neuronal signaling 

2. Role in cognitive processing and memory

3. Circadian rhythms regulation 

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells 

• Myelin = fatty sheath surrounding neuronal axons 

1. Increases speed and efficiency of neuronal communication 

2. Comprise the white matter

Oligodendrocytes

Make up the myelin in the central nervous system 

Schwann cells

make up the myelin in the peripheral nervous system

Demyelinating disease

Any disease in which the myelin sheath is abnormal 

• Caused by:

1.  Defective production myelin (e.g., leukodystrophy) 

2. Destruction of myelin (e.g., multiple sclerosis) 

Microglia

• The immune cells for the CNS 

• Phagocytose - eat invading microorganisms and damaged/dead neurons 

• If chronically overactivated, can over-produce pro-inflammatory cytokines (can cause chronic pain syndrome) 

Ependymal cells 

• Cells located in the choroid plexus within the ventricles 

• Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 

The nervous system

• Collection of nerves and neurons that communicate with each other and the body in order to interpret and respond to the organism's environment 

• Evolved so that communication is fast and reliable 

• Not all organisms have a nervous system 

1. Plants, sponges, and coral have alternative ways to communicate

Central nervous system (CNS) 

1. Components of the nervous system located within the skull and spine 

2. Brain, spinal cord 

3. Cells in the CNS are neurons 

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

1. Components of the nervous system located outside of the skull and spine 

2. Sensory and motor nerves 

3. Cells in the PNS are nerves

2 main branches of the PNS

• 1. Somatic nervous system 

1. Nerves carrying sensory information to the CNS 

2. Nerves carrying motor commands from the CNS 

• Autonomic nervous system 

1. Regulates the activity of the internal organs and other involuntary activities 

2 main components of PNS 

• Nerves: enclosed bundles of cables that transmit electrical signals to and from body structures and the CNS 

• Ganglia: Clusters of nerve cell bodies associated with nerves

The CNS includes

1. The spinal cord 

2. The brain: Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem

• Gray matter = accumulation of cell bodies 

Nucleus = accumulation of neurons that have similar connections and functions  

White matter = accumulation of axons (due to myelin)

Tract = bundle of axons (usually originate in the same gray matter structure, are organized in parallel, and usually end in the same gray matter region)

Gray matter and white matter 

When talking about a tract, it’s often named after the point of origin and the point of termination 

Neuroanatomical directions

• Anterior vs posterior 

• Dorsal vs ventral 

• Medial vs lateral  

• Afferent connection: neural connection coming at you 

• Efferent connection: Neural connection exiting you 

The spinal cord 

• Functions primarily in the transmission of signals to and from the brain and the rest of the body 

• Acts independently of the brain with local reflexes and other neural circuits 

• Divided into five sections 

1. Cervical 

2. Thoracic 

3. Lumbar 

4. Sacral 

5. Cocoygeal 

Dorsal roots

1. Carry sensory information from the body to the CNS 

2. Afferent pathway 

Ventral roots 

1. Carry motor commands to the body from the CNS 

2. Efferent pathway

Spinal cord injury 

• Physical trauma to the spine 

• Serves communication between the brain and the body 

• Causes numbness and paralysis 

• The higher up the injury occurs, the more of the body is affected 

• The completeness of the break is also important for how bad the injury is 

• >12,000 people experience spinal cord injury each year 

Neuroanatomical directions 

• anterior  vs. posterior 

• Dorsal vs ventral 

• Medial vs lateral 

1. Afferent connection - neural connection coming at you 

2. Efferent connection - neural connection exiting you 

The spinal cord

• Functions primarily in the transmission of signals to and from the brain and rest of the body 

• Acts independently of the brain with local reflexes and other neural circuits 

• Divided into 5 sections 

1. Cervical 

2. Thoracic 

3. Lumbar 

4. Sacral 

5. Cocoygeal 

Gross organization of the CNS

• Cerebrum 

• Cerebellum 

• Brain stem 

• Spinal cord 

Major landmarks of the brain 

• Two hemispheres separated by the longitudinal fissure 

• Two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum (allows communication between the hemispheres) 

• Contralateral - sensory information is sent to the sensory area on the opposite side of the body 

• Ipsilateral - sensory information is sent to sensory areas on the same side of the body

Cells of the brain are organized into different structures 

• Cortex: layers of cells on the outer part of the brain 

• Nuclei: clusters of neurons within the brain 

Folds of the cortex 

• Gyri (singular gyrus): Bulges/ridges on the brain’s surface 

• Sulci (singular sulcus): grooves. Indentations into the brain’s surface 

• Why is the surface of the brain so folded? What might be the purpose of this?

1. Folding the brain’s surface significantly increases its surface area. 

3 main subdivisions of the brain 

Forebrain,Midbrain, Hindibrain

Forebrain

1. Cerebral cortex 

2. Basal ganglia 

3. Limbic system 

4. Basal forebrain

Midbrain

1. Tectum 

2. Hypothalamus 

3. Substantia nigra

Hindibrain

1. Cerebellum 

2. Pons 

3. Medulla oblongata

Lobes of the brain 

Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Somatosensation, proprioception, focuses attention, integration of sensory input, helps generate a picture of our surroundings 

Frontal lobe

Motor control, executive functions, decision making, personality, working memory

Temporal lobe

Memories, emotion, language, comprehension, links words with their meanings, recognition of objects, people, and places

1. Includes Wernicke’s area 

• Somatosensation, proprioception, focuses attention, integration of sensory input, helps generate a picture of our surroundings 

1. Includes our primary somatosensory cortex

Occipital lobe

Vision, recognizing objects, where things are in space

Includes our primary visual cortex

Brodmann’s areas 

• Used cytoarchitecture to divide up the neocortex 

• Cortical areas that had similar cytoarchitecture were grouped into an “area” together 

• He guessed that each “area” had a different function 

Important neocortical areas 

• Primary sensory cortices, Secondary sensory cortices, Mortar cortices, Association cortices 

Primary sensory cortices

1. Area of the cortex that first receives sensory information 

2.  Body -> spinal cord -> brain 

• Secondary sensory cortices 

Area of the cortex that receives sensory information from the primary cortex

• Mortar cortices 

1. Area of the cortex that generates a motor response 

2. Brain -> spinal cord -> muscles

Association cortices

Areas of the cortex that receive input from other cortical areas and non-cortical brain areas to integrate all the information and produce a response involved in complex brain functions

Limbic system functions 

• Main functions  

1. Motivation, emotion, learning, memory 

• Main structures: 

1. Entorhinal cortex: bridges the cortex to the hippocampus 

2. Hippocamous: long term memory, spatial memory 

amygdala

emotions , fear, aggression, anxiety

hypothalamus

1. Regulates important bodily functions (temperature regulation, circadian rhythms, social bonding, thirst, hunger) 

2. Links the nervous system to the endocrine system 

3. Pituitary gland 

1. Produces and releases hormones 

Thalamus

1. Relays information about our senses to the cortex and rest of the brain 

2. “Grand central station” of the brain 

3. Filters sensory information

Basal Ganglia functions 

• Main functions 

1. Voluntary movement 

2. Habitual behaviors 

3. Emotions 

• Consists of the following structures 

1. Caudate nucleus 

2. Putamen 

3. Globus pallidus 

4. Subthalamic nucleus 

5. Substantia nigra 

6. Nucleus accumbens

Main Brainstem func

• Main functions 

1. Essential activities, sleep/ wakefulness, heart rate, breathing, attention, temperature regulation, vision, hearing, motor control of face and neck

Brainstem main structures

• Main structures  

1. Midbrain 

2. Pons (part of hindbrain) 

3. Medulla oblongata part of the hindbrain 

Cerebellum

• Functions in detecting and adjusting for movement errors 

• Also important for learning motor skills

Major landmarks for the Brain 

• Two hemispheres separated by the longitudinal fissure 

• Two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum (allows communication between the hemispheres) 

• Contralateral: sensory information is sent to sensory areas on the opposite side of the body 

• Ipsilateral: Sensory information is sent to sensory areas on the same side of the body

Cells of the Brain are organized into different structures

• Cortex: layers of cells on the outer part of the brain 

• Nuclei: cluster of neurons within the brain 

Folds of the Cortex 

• Gyri(singular gyrus): bulges/ridges on the brain’s surface 

• Sulci(singular sulcus): groves/ indepentations into the brain’s surface 

• Why is the surface of the brain folded? What might be the purpose of this?: Folding of the brain’s surface significantly increases its surface area. 

3 main subdivisions of the brain

Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindibrain