Psychology Unit 3

the genetic code

set of biochemical instructions encoded in DNA and RNA

chromosomes

structures in nucleus that contains the genes an individual inherits

genes

basic unit of heredity, guides protein synthesis

genotype

genetic makeup of organism

phenotype

the observable characteristics, including physical structures and behaviours

homozygous

genes at a particular location are the same on each chromosome

heterozygous

genes at particular location are different on each chromosome

explain dominant vs recessive genes

recessive will only appear in phenotype if on both alleles

what are twin studies

evaluating how genes and environment influence behaviour by studying people of varying relatedness (identical, fraternal)

what are characteristic patterns

relative influence of genes and environment can change throughout the lifespan

explain adoption studies

seeing if an adopted child is more similar to biological parents or adopted parents (nature vs nurture)

what is heritability

degree to which genetics explain individual differences or variance in a behaviour or trait (ranges 0 to 1)

what is behavioural genomics

the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour (how traits are inherited)

explain the idea of single genes and behaviours

most genes dont control one single thing, combinations of genes influence behaviour

evolution in evolutionary psychology

thought of as change in frequency of genes occurring in a population over generations

explain human mate preferences

likely shaped by differing evolutionary pressures on each sex

are sex differences related to cognitive ability

depends, hormone levels do have an effect, environment always plays a role (stereotypes)

what are neurons responsible for

generating everything from thought to behaviour and movement

around how many neurons are in our brain

100 billion or so

what do the dendrites of the neuron do

allows one neuron to connect to other neurons through electrical current

what is the axon of the neuron responsible for

how the electrical signal moves

what does the myelin sheath do

helps speed up electrical impulse (makes it faster so brain cells and neurons can talk more efficiently)

what happens at axon terminals

where neuro transmitters- chemical messengers will be released from the cell and can influence other neurons

what are sensory neurons

neurons that collect info from the external environment- from sound, touch, sight- and communicates it to either spinal cord or brain

what are motor neurons

they take info from brain or spinal cord to help move our body

what are interneurons

they connect sensory neurons to motor neurons to create a circuit

what is neural plasticity

the brains ability to change structure and function as we learn new skills

what is adult neurogenesis

formation of new neurons that are integrated into the adult brain

explain human echolocation

humans that are blind using echolocation to locate objects or structures. (daniel kish- clicks tongue to hear the echo off of objects)

what is reason blind people are able to echolocate

when people are blind the back of the brain devoted to visual processes gets recruited for non visual tasks

what are the three types of glial cells

microglia, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes

what is the function of microglia

englush debris and harmful material, and mounts immune response

what is the function of oligodendrocyte

responsible for myelination (produce a layer of insulating myelin as parts of neurons axons), (helps electrical signals travel faster throughout nervous system

what is the function of astrocytes

provide physical support and delivers energy to neurons

which cell is most abundant in the brain

astrocytes

explain Multiple sclerosis

disease resulting from malfunctioning glial cells, microglia mount their immune response against the myelin sheath- (they attack the protective layer around neurons)

what are cations in neurons

positively charged ions, sodium, potassium in neurons

what are anions in neurons

negatively charged ions, such as chloride, and negatively charged proteins

what changes the electrical signal related to ion movement in neurons

how they move that is changing electrical signal

how do you figure out how ions contribute to the charge in a cell

add up all the positive and negative charges in the cell

what do ions move according to in neurons

according to their concentration gradient and electrostatic pressure

what is the concentration gradient of ions

ions naturally diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

what is electrostatic pressure in ions

repulsion of same charges, attraction of opposite charges

what does the resting potential mean

cell is polarized (before anything has happened to neurons) slingshot ready to release

what is the action potential

a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length if summation exceeds - 55 mV firing threshold

what is the all-or-none principle law of action potentials

that a neuron either fires a full action potential or nothing at all

what is the refractory period of the action potential

a brief period during which a neuron cannot fire- cell is hypopolarized (more than polarized)

what is the synaptic cleft of neurotransmitters

the ssmall space between the terminal button and the dendrite of another neuron

what is reuptake

process whereby released neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron

what are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)

prevent the reuptake of serotonin, enhancing its effects

what are the major neurotransmitters

glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

what is glutamate

primary excitatory neuro transmitter, most abundant one, makes action potentials more likely to occur

what is GABA

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, makes action potentials less likely to occur

what is acetylcholine and where is it found

found in the neuro muscular junctions (space between a nerve and a muscle) how we can activate and control our muscles by the release of acetylcholine

what is dopamine important for

our voluntary movements; intentional movements: also important for our processing of rewards (chocolate, intercourse, drugs)

what is norepinephrine important for and involved in

for regulating our arousal and energy levels; involved in fight or flight response

what is serotonin important for

important for regulating our mood (why antidepressants target our serotonin(

what are excitatory neurotransmitters

increase the likelihood of an action potential occuring (helping to depolarize the neurons, making it more likely to reach action potentials)

what are inhibitory neurotransmitters

decrease the likelihood of an action potential occuring (making the neuron less likely to generate action potentials)

what are the drug effects on neurotransmitters

drugs have the potential to influence our thinking, do this by affecting neuro transmitters

what are agonists

drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmittters actions

what are direct agonists

directly bind to the receptors

what are indirect agonists

do not directly bind to the receptors

what are antagonists

inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of the neurotransmitter

what are the two divisions of the nervous system

peripheral nervous system (transmits info to and from the central nervous system) and central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord)

what are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system

autonomic nervous system (automatic functions of our body) and somatic (nerves that control our body)

what are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and when are they active

sympathetic (active during fight or flight response) and parasympathetic (active during rest and digestion)

what are the structures of the hindbrain (4)

medulle, pons, reticular formation, cerebellum

what is function of the medulla

controls basic living functions- heart rate and breathing rate

what is the function of the pons

involved in our levels of wakedness and levels of arousal in our dreams

what is the reticular formation

bridge from hind brain to spinal cord

what are the functions of the cerebellum

main function is importance for coordination and refining movement: fine motor adjustments

what are the structures of the midbrain

tectum, substantia nigra

what is the function of the tectum and what does it consist of

consists of the superior colliculus, which orients our visual attention, and the inferior colliculu, which orients our auditory attention

where is the substantia nigra and what is its function

connected with the forebrain and plays a role in producing voluntary movements

which structure starts to degrade in people with parkinsons

the substantia nigra

what are the components of the forebrain

ventricles, basal ganglia, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus,

what is the basal ganglia involved in

facilitating planned movements and skill learning

what does the nucleus accumbens do

integrates sensory and movement information with the brains reward system

which structures are in the limbic system

thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus

what does the amygdala do

processes emotional responses and stimuli

what does the hippocampus do

critical for learning and formation of new memories

what does the thalamus do

relays sensory information to different regions of the brain

what structures or things are apart of the endocrine system

hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hormones

what does the hypothalamus do in the endocrine system

regulates basic biological needs and motivation systems; homeostasis

what does is the pituitary gland

‘master gland’ of the endocrine system

what are hormones in the endocrine system

chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system, hromones= way our brain communicates with the rest of our body

what is the grey matter of the cerebral cortex composed of and associated with

composed of cell bodies and dendrites, associated with more thinking abilities

what is the white matter of the cerebral cortex composed of and associated with

composed of myelinated axons that interconnect the different structures of the brain and allows signals to be shared in the brain

what is localization

specific function “located” in a specific brain area

what are circuits in the brain

specific function controlled by interconnected areas

does the brain work by circuits or localization

circuits

which brain structure has grown dramatically during the evolution of the human brain

the cerebral cortex

what are the lobes of the cerebral cortex

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobes

where are the occipital lobes located and what do they do

located at the rear of the brain, where visual information is processed

where are temporal lobes located and what are they involved in

located at the sides of the brain near the ears, and involved in hearing, language and aspects of vision such as object and face recognition

what are frontal lobes important for

important for many ‘higher’ cognitive functions, such as planning, inhibition of impulses and emotion, language production and voluntary movement

what is the parietal lobes

somatosensory cortex; process touch sensations of various bodih parts

what is the corpus callosum

densely concentrated bundle of nerve cells connecting the two hemispheres: allows one half of brain to communicate with other half

explain hemispheric specialization

no such thing as left and right brain people but some things may be dominantly specialized to one side of the brain but not exclusively