Psychology of Memory, Cognition, and Intelligence Flashcards

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering terms and concepts from the psychology lecture notes on memory, cognitive processes, and intelligence.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time; information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved.

Encoding

The first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain.

Storage

The process of retaining information in the brain over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Multi-Store Model

Describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory.

Sensory Memory

The initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period, acting as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retaining impressions for a few seconds at most.

Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images, capturing a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades.

Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information, holding sounds for about 3-4 seconds to allow processing of spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

Short-Term Memory

Temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds, with a limited capacity.

Long-Term Memory

The stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity, allowing for long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts.

Working Memory

A form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information, where short-term and long-term memories combine.

Central Executive

The control center of working memory that manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from senses and long-term memory.

Phonological Loop

A component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of Working Memory that handles visual and spatial information, allowing for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons resulting from their simultaneous activation; considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Effortful Processing

A type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks.

Levels of Processing Model

Proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered.

Shallow Encoding

A basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning.

Structural Encoding

A type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information.

Phonemic Encoding

A type of shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information.

Deep Encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge.

Chunking (Grouping)

A memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Categories (Grouping)

A method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories.

Hierarchies (Grouping)

Organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

Mnemonics

Techniques used to improve memory by helping recall information through associations with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations.

Explicit Memories

Memory that involves conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events.

Autobiographical Memory

A type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life.

Implicit Memories

A type of memory that does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point.

Massed Practice

"Cramming"; a learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks.

Spacing Effect

"Distributed Practice"; the phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session.

Maintenance Rehearsal

A learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind.

Recall

A type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieving information from memory spontaneously).

Recognition

A type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented.

Context-Dependent Memory

When you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it.

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

A cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow.

Recency Effect

A phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle.

Testing Effect

A phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing.

Metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory.

The Forgetting Curve

A graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time.

Encoding Failure

Occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding.

Proactive Interference

Occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information.

Retroactive Interference

Occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge.

Anterograde Amnesia

A memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

A memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

Infantile Amnesia

The phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes.

Repression

Distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness.

Constructive Memory

The process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed.

Misinformation Effect

Happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge.

Assimilation

"Adding to Existing"; the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

"Adjusting"; the cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Convergent Thinking

A cognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that simplify decision-making by reducing the cognitive burden.

Representativeness Heuristic

A cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past, which can sometimes prevent seeing alternative solutions.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

Framing

How information is presented influences decisions and perceptions.

Gambler’s Fallacy

A cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes, even though each event is independent and has no bearing on future results.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

A cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because they have already invested so much, even if the returns are poor or the endeavor no longer aligns with their goals.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

g (General Intelligence)

The overarching mental ability that influences performance on various cognitive tasks.

Multiple Intelligence

Theory suggesting that individuals possess different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Numerical measure of an individual's cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group, typically assessed through standardized tests.

Standardization

The process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring psychological assessments.

Achievement Tests

Assess a person's knowledge or skills in a specific area, such as academic subjects or job-related tasks, measuring what an individual has learned or accomplished.

Aptitude Tests

Measure a person's potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future, assessing innate abilities and predicting future performance.

Validity

"Very Accurate"; the extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Construct Validity

Checks if a test really measures what it's supposed to, helping ensure the test gives the right results for what it's trying to find out.

Predictive Validity

Shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors, measuring if test scores can predict future performance accurately.

Reliability

"Repeat Results"; consistency in test results over time and among different scorers, assuring that a test yields stable and dependable measurements.

Test-Retest Reliability

Assesses consistency by administering the same test to the same group twice, measuring how stable scores are over time.

Split-Half Reliability

Divides a test into two halves and compares scores between them, measuring internal consistency by checking if both halves yield similar results.

Flynn Effect

The trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations, suggesting a rise in general intelligence due to environmental and cultural factors.

Stereotype Threat

The phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

Stereotype Lift

The opposite of stereotype threat, occurring when individuals from stereotypically advantaged groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group.