Nutrition Exam 2

Added sugars

Sugars added to foods during processing, like table sugar, honey, and syrups; too much can increase weight gain and heart disease risk.

Alcohol metabolism

The body mainly breaks down alcohol in the liver using ADH and ALDH; alcohol becomes acetaldehyde, then acetate.

Alcohol use disorder

A condition where someone struggles to control alcohol use despite harmful effects; it can damage the liver, brain, and heart.

AMDR for carbohydrates

45–65% of daily calories should come from, provides 4 calories per gram.

Amylase

An enzyme in saliva and pancreatic juice that breaks starch into smaller carbohydrate molecules.

Aspartame

An artificial sweetener about 200 times sweeter than sugar; people with PKU must avoid it because it contains phenylalanine.

Bile

A fluid made by the liver and stored in the gallbladder that breaks fat into tiny droplets to help digestion.

Biological value (BV)

Measures how efficiently the body uses absorbed protein; high-BV proteins provide essential amino acids in useful amounts.

Cholesterol

A waxy lipid used to make cell membranes, hormones, vitamin D, and bile acids; the body also makes its own.

Chronic alcohol use

Long-term alcohol consumption that can damage organs and cause nutrient deficiencies, especially thiamin deficiency.

Chylomicrons

Particles made in intestinal cells that transport dietary fats through the lymph and blood to muscles and fat tissue.

Complete dietary protein

A protein containing all 9 essential amino acids in adequate amounts; examples include eggs, dairy, meat, fish, and soy.

Type 1 diabetes

An autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing pancreatic cells, causing little or no insulin production.

Type 2 diabetes

A disease where cells resist insulin and the pancreas may not make enough insulin, causing high blood glucose.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates made of 2 sugar units; examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Fat digestion

Mostly occurs in the small intestine; bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic lipase breaks it into absorbable molecules.

Fatty acids

Building blocks of fats used for energy and cell functions; types include saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated.

Functional fiber

Isolated or manufactured fiber added to foods or supplements that provides health benefits, such as improved bowel regularity.

Glycogenolysis

The breakdown of stored glycogen to help maintain blood glucose and provide energy.

Heart disease

Conditions affecting the heart or blood vessels; risks include high LDL, high blood pressure, smoking, and diabetes.

HDL

Carries excess cholesterol from tissues and blood vessels back to the liver for processing. (good cholesterol)

Calories from fat calculation

Fat provides 9 calories per gram; 95 g fat = 855 calories, or 42.75% of a 2,000-calorie diet.

Incomplete dietary protein

A protein low in one or more essential amino acids; eating a variety of plant foods can supply all essential amino acids.

Insulin

A hormone made by the pancreas that lowers blood glucose by helping cells absorb glucose and store it as glycogen.

Ketosis

A state where the body makes ketones from fat for energy when carbohydrate availability is low, such as during fasting.

Kidney disease

Kidney damage that reduces blood filtering and waste removal; severe cases may require dietary changes.

Lacto-ovo vegetarian

A person who avoids meat, poultry, and fish but eats eggs and dairy products.

Lipase

An enzyme, mainly from the pancreas, that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and other smaller molecules.

Liver

An organ that processes nutrients, breaks down alcohol, makes bile, stores glycogen, and helps regulate blood glucose.

LDL (bad cholesterol)

Carries cholesterol from the liver to tissues; high levels can cause artery plaque and increase heart disease risk.

Monounsaturated fat

A fat with one double bond; found in olive oil, avocados, and nuts, and can help lower LDL when replacing saturated fat.

Negative nitrogen balance

When the body loses more nitrogen than it takes in, indicating body protein loss; can occur during starvation or severe illness.

Omega-3 fatty acid

An essential type of polyunsaturated fat important for cell membranes and brain function; found in fatty fish, walnuts, and flaxseeds.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

An inherited disorder that prevents proper breakdown of phenylalanine; buildup can damage the brain, so the diet must limit it.

Protease

An enzyme that breaks proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids; examples include pepsin and trypsin.

AMDR for protein

10–35% of daily calories should come from protein; protein provides 4 calories per gram.

Saturated fats

Fats with no double bonds, often solid at room temperature; excess intake can raise LDL cholesterol.

Sorbitol

A sugar alcohol used in sugar-free products; large amounts can cause gas, bloating, and diarrhea.

Starch

A complex carbohydrate made of glucose chains that plants use for energy storage; found in bread, rice, potatoes, and grains.

Sterol

A type of lipid with a ring-shaped structure; cholesterol is a sterol used to make hormones and bile acids.

Thiamin (vitamin B1)

Helps the body use carbohydrates for energy and supports nerves; severe deficiency can cause beriberi or Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

Trans fats

Fats that raise LDL and lower HDL cholesterol, increasing heart disease risk; industrial trans fats should be avoided.

Vegan diet

Excludes all animal-derived foods; needs reliable vitamin B12 sources and must plan adequate nutrient intake.

Vitamin B12

Needed for red blood cells, DNA, and nerve function; found mainly in animal foods, so vegans need fortified foods or supplements.

Daily protein requirement for a 90 kg man

The adult RDA is 0.8 g/kg/day; 90 × 0.8 = 72 grams of protein daily.

Zinc

A mineral needed for immunity, wound healing, growth, and DNA production; sources include meat, shellfish, beans, nuts, and seeds.

Health benefits of fiber

Fiber prevents constipation and supports bowel health; soluble fiber can lower LDL cholesterol and help control blood glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

The process of making glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as glycerol and certain amino acids; mainly occurs in the liver during fasting.

Type 1 vs. Type 2 diabetes

Type 1 occurs when the immune system destroys insulin-producing cells; Type 2 occurs when cells resist insulin and the body may not make enough.

Blood glucose regulation

When blood glucose rises, insulin helps cells absorb glucose and store it as glycogen; when it falls, glucagon signals the liver to release glucose.

How are lipids digested?

Fat digestion mainly occurs in the small intestine; bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides into smaller absorbable molecules.

Lipid absorption and transport

Intestinal cells package most long-chain dietary fats into chylomicrons; these travel through lymph and blood to deliver fat to muscles and fat tissue.

Vegan vs. lacto-vegetarian vs. lacto-ovo-vegetarian

Vegans avoid all animal foods; lacto-vegetarians eat dairy but not eggs, meat, or fish; lacto-ovo-vegetarians eat dairy and eggs but not meat or fish.

Making nonessential amino acids

The body makes nonessential amino acids through processes such as transamination, which transfers an amino group to a carbon-containing molecule.

Ways the body metabolizes alcohol

Most alcohol is broken down by ADH into acetaldehyde, then ALDH converts it into acetate; MEOS and catalase break down smaller amounts, and some alcohol leaves unchanged through breath, urine, and sweat.

Why can women have higher blood alcohol levels than men?

On average, women have less stomach alcohol dehydrogenase activity and less body water relative to weight; the same alcohol amount may therefore produce a higher blood alcohol concentration.

Name and describe 3 molecules used to transport cholesterol/lipids.

1. HDL (Good): Carries cholesterol from the body to the liver to be removed.

2. LDL (Bad): Carries cholesterol to body cells. Too much can build up in arteries.

3. Chylomicrons: Carry fats from food through the lymph and blood to the body.

How are saturated and unsaturated fats different?

• Saturated fats: No double bonds; usually solid at room temperature. Examples: butter and fatty meat.

• Unsaturated fats: Have one or more double bonds; usually liquid at room temperature. Examples: olive oil and avocados.

How are Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes different? How are they treated? Two differences:

• Type 1: People must take insulin. The body attacks the cells that make insulin. 

• Type 2: The body does not use insulin properly, or it does not make enough. Treated with healthy eating, exercise, and sometimes medication or insulin.

• Type 1 is an autoimmune disease; Type 2 involves insulin resistance.

• Type 1 requires insulin; Type 2 may be managed without insulin.

What do insulin and glucagon do?

• Insulin: Lowers blood sugar by helping glucose enter cells.

• Glucagon: Raises blood sugar by telling the liver to release stored glucose.

What does chronic alcohol use do to the body? Give 2 examples of effects on nutrients.

Chronic alcohol use can damage the liver and interfere with nutrient absorption.

1. Vitamin deficiencies: It can reduce absorption of vitamins like B1 (thiamine).

2. Poor nutrient absorption: It can interfere with the absorption of nutrients like folate.

How are essential and non-essential amino acids different?

• Essential amino acids: The body cannot make enough, so we must get them from food.

• Non-essential amino acids: The body can make them.

In foods: Both types are found in protein-rich foods like meat, eggs, dairy, beans, and soy.

How to avoid deficiencies:

 Eat enough protein and include a variety of protein-rich foods in your diet.