General Biology: Fundamentals of Life, Evolution, and Chemistry

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering introductory scientific principles, evolutionary biology and speciation, phylogenetics and taxonomy, inorganic atomic structure and chemical bonding, as well as organic chemistry, pH, and properties of water.

Biology

The study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments.

Inductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results.

Basic Science

Pure science that seeks to expand knowledge regardless of short-term application.

Peer Review

A blind research review process where scientists submit experimental details, results, and interpretations for reviewers to determine veracity and merit for publication.

Biological Levels of Organization

The hierarchy of biological organization extending from atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, to the biosphere.

Natural Selection

The prolific reproduction of individuals with favorable traits that survive environmental change because of those traits, leading to evolutionary change.

Divergent Evolution

The process in which two species evolve in diverse directions from a common point.

Convergent Evolution

The process in which similar traits evolve independently in species that do not share a recent common ancestry.

Homologous Structures

Synonymous physical parts in different organisms that indicate shared common ancestry due to similar underlying construction.

Allopatric Speciation

Speciation that occurs when populations of a species become geographically separated from one another.

Adaptive Radiation

The rapid speciation and evolution of multiple distinct species from a single original species to fill diverse ecological niches.

Aneuploidy

A condition resulting when gametes have too many or too few chromosomes due to nondisjunction during meiosis, yielding offspring with $2n+1$ or $2n-1$ chromosomes.

Autopolyploidy

Polyploidy that results within a single species when mitosis is not followed by cytokinesis.

Alloploidy

Polyploidy that results when two different species mate to produce viable offspring via multiple matings.

Temporal Isolation

A prezygotic reproductive barrier that occurs when two related species reproduce at different times of the day or year.

Punctuated Equilibrium

A speciation model where species diverge quickly from an ancestral form and then remain unchanged for long periods of time.

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history and relationships of an organism or group of organisms.

Phylogenetic Tree Structure

The architectural components of a phylogenetic diagram, including the root, branch points, basal taxon, sister taxa, and polytomy.

Basal Taxon

A lineage on a phylogenetic tree that evolved early from the root and remains unbranched.

Sister Taxa

Two evolutionary lineages that stem from the exact same branch point on a phylogenetic tree.

Systematics

The field of science that uses information to organize and classify organisms based on evolutionary relationships.

Taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms to construct internationally shared classification systems.

Binomial Nomenclature

A two-word naming system for organisms consisting of the italicized genus name followed by the species name.

Cladistics

A system that sorts organisms into clades based on shared derived homologous traits.

Horizontal Gene Transfer

The transfer of genetic material between unrelated species, such as aphids acquiring red carotenoid genes from consuming fungi.

Ring of Life

A phylogenetic model proposing that all three domains of life evolved from a common pool of primitive prokaryotes.

Atom

The smallest fundamental unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element.

Atomic Number

The distinct total number of protons contained within the nucleus of an atom of a specific element.

Atomic Mass

The calculated mean mass number for naturally occurring isotopes of an element, measured in atomic mass units ($\text{amu}$).

Isotope

Forms of an element that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different mass numbers.

Bohr Model

An early atomic model depicting protons in a central nucleus surrounded by electrons traveling in circular orbits at specific discrete energy levels.

Octet Rule

The principle stating that atoms are energetically most stable when their outermost electron shell contains eight electrons.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains one or more electrons, designated with an "-ide" suffix.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond formed between atoms with differing electronegativities, leading to unequal electron sharing and partial charges.

Van der Waals Interactions

Weak physical attractions or interactions between nearby molecules caused by transient fluctuations in electron density.

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of heat energy required to transition one gram of a liquid substance into a gas.

Cohesion

The intermolecular attraction between like molecules, such as water molecules sticking together at a liquid-gas interface via hydrogen bonding.

Surface Tension

The capacity of a liquid surface to withstand being ruptured when placed under tension or stress.

Adhesion

The attraction between water molecules and other distinct types of molecules or charged surfaces.

Buffer

A solution that plays a key role in maintaining internal solution pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions ($H^+$) or hydroxide ions ($OH^-$).

Hydrocarbons

Organic molecules consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Structural Isomers

Molecules that share the exact same chemical formula but differ in the covalent placement or arrangement of their atoms.

Geometric Isomers

Isomers that differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a rigid double bond, designated as cis or trans configurations.

Enantiomers

Molecules that share chemical formulas and bonds but differ in three-dimensional placement as non-superimposable mirror images.

Functional Groups

Groups of atoms within molecules that confer specific, consistent chemical properties and reactivity to those molecules.