CHINA-IGCSE EDEXCEL

What was the Qing dynasty?

The Manchu-led imperial dynasty that ruled China from 1644 until its overthrow in 1911–12.

What problems weakened Qing China by 1900?

Foreign domination, unequal treaties, corruption, economic difficulties, peasant unrest and the dynasty's failure to modernise effectively.

What was the Boxer Uprising?

An anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement that attacked foreign influence in China in 1899–1901.

Why did the Boxer Uprising occur?

Resentment of foreign economic and political control, Christian missionaries, unequal treaties and natural disasters that worsened hardship.

What happened during the Boxer Uprising?

Boxers attacked foreigners and Chinese Christians; foreign forces formed an international alliance and invaded northern China.

What was the result of the Boxer Uprising?

China was defeated and forced to sign the Boxer Protocol in 1901, pay a large indemnity and allow foreign troops to remain in Beijing.

How did the Boxer Uprising weaken the Qing dynasty?

It exposed the dynasty's weakness, increased foreign influence and strengthened demands for reform and revolution.

What were the late Qing reforms?

Reforms introduced in the final years of the dynasty to modernise education, the military, administration and government.

Why did the Qing introduce reforms?

Defeats by foreign powers and domestic unrest convinced some officials that China needed modernisation to survive.

Why did late Qing reforms fail to save the dynasty?

They came too late, faced opposition, failed to resolve deep grievances and increased tensions with groups excluded from power.

What was the immediate background to the 1911 Revolution?

Nationalist opposition, military unrest, resentment of Qing rule and anger over the government's handling of railway nationalisation.

What was the Railway Protection Movement?

A protest movement in 1911 against the Qing government's nationalisation of railway projects, especially in Sichuan.

What triggered the 1911 Revolution?

The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911, when soldiers rebelled against Qing rule.

Why did the 1911 Revolution spread?

Provincial leaders and military units declared independence from the Qing, while opposition to the dynasty grew.

Who was Sun Yat-sen?

A Chinese revolutionary and nationalist who promoted the overthrow of the Qing and became the provisional president of the new republic.

What were Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People?

Nationalism, democracy and people's livelihood.

What did Sun's principle of nationalism mean?

China should be free from foreign domination and ruled by the Chinese people rather than the Manchu dynasty.

What did Sun's principle of democracy mean?

China should develop a republican system with political participation and constitutional government.

What did Sun's principle of people's livelihood mean?

Improving people's welfare and addressing economic inequality, including land and living standards.

When was the Republic of China established?

1912, following the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

Who became president of the new republic before Sun Yat-sen stepped aside?

Yuan Shikai, a powerful military leader who negotiated the Qing emperor's abdication.

When did the last Qing emperor abdicate?

February 1912; Puyi's abdication ended imperial rule in China.

Why did Sun Yat-sen resign as provisional president?

He agreed to step aside for Yuan Shikai in the hope that Yuan would support the republic and secure the Qing abdication.

Why did Yuan Shikai undermine democracy?

He concentrated power, suppressed opposition and attempted to make himself emperor.

What happened after Yuan Shikai's death in 1916?

Central authority weakened and rival military commanders controlled different regions, creating the Warlord Era.

What was warlordism?

A period when regional military leaders controlled territories and fought one another, weakening China's central government.

Why did warlords gain power?

The central government and army fragmented, local commanders controlled troops and taxes, and there was no effective national authority.

How did warlordism affect ordinary Chinese people?

War, heavy taxation, conscription, corruption, banditry and economic disruption caused suffering and insecurity.

Why was China vulnerable to foreign influence during the Warlord Era?

Division weakened national resistance and allowed foreign powers to maintain concessions and influence in China.

What was the May Fourth Movement?

A student-led protest movement beginning on 4 May 1919 against foreign imperialism and the Chinese government's response to the Treaty of Versailles.

Why did the May Fourth Movement begin?

China was angered that German concessions in Shandong were transferred to Japan rather than returned to China after the First World War.

What happened on 4 May 1919?

Students in Beijing demonstrated against the Versailles settlement and Chinese officials seen as betraying national interests.

How did the May Fourth Movement spread?

Student demonstrations inspired strikes, boycotts of Japanese goods and wider protests by workers and merchants.

What were the results of the May Fourth Movement?

It strengthened Chinese nationalism, encouraged anti-imperialist ideas, promoted new political thinking and helped create conditions for communism.

How did the May Fourth Movement influence the CCP?

It encouraged radical intellectuals to explore Marxism and strengthened support for revolutionary change.

What was the Guomindang (GMD)?

The Chinese Nationalist Party, associated with Sun Yat-sen and later led by Chiang Kai-shek.

What was the First United Front?

An alliance formed in 1923 between the GMD and the Chinese Communist Party to oppose warlords and unite China.

Why did the GMD and CCP form the First United Front?

Both wanted to defeat warlords and strengthen China, and Soviet advisers encouraged cooperation.

What was the role of the Soviet Union in the First United Front?

The USSR provided advice, training and support to the GMD and CCP and helped organise the Whampoa Military Academy.

Who was Chiang Kai-shek?

A GMD military leader who succeeded Sun Yat-sen as the dominant Nationalist leader and later fought the Communists.

What was the Whampoa Military Academy?

A military academy established in 1924 with Soviet assistance to train officers for the Nationalist movement; Chiang Kai-shek became its commandant.

When was the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) founded?

1921, in Shanghai.

Who were the early leaders of the CCP?

Founding figures included Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao; Mao Zedong became increasingly influential later.

What did the CCP want?

A communist revolution that would transform China's political and economic system and, increasingly, mobilise peasants.

How did the CCP differ from the GMD?

The GMD was nationalist and sought a unified republic; the CCP aimed for communist revolution and the transformation of class relations.

What was the Northern Expedition?

A military campaign launched in 1926 by the GMD to defeat warlords and unify China.

What were the main results of the Northern Expedition?

The GMD gained control over much of China, weakened several warlords and established a stronger Nationalist government.

What happened in Shanghai in April 1927?

Chiang Kai-shek's forces and allied groups attacked Communists and labour activists in the Shanghai Massacre.

Why did Chiang Kai-shek attack the Communists?

He feared communist influence over workers and the GMD, and wanted to eliminate rivals to his authority.

What was the Shanghai Massacre?

The violent suppression of Communists and trade unionists in Shanghai in April 1927, marking the collapse of the First United Front.

What happened to the First United Front in 1927?

It broke down as Chiang Kai-shek purged the Communists and launched a campaign against them.

What was the Nanjing Decade?

The period from 1927 to 1937 when the GMD government based at Nanjing sought to strengthen and modernise China.

Why was GMD rule during the Nanjing Decade limited?

Corruption, regional warlords, rural poverty, weak state control and conflict with the Communists restricted its achievements.

What were the Extermination Campaigns?

GMD military campaigns, particularly from 1930 to 1934, intended to destroy the Communist bases in Jiangxi and eliminate the CCP.

Why did Chiang Kai-shek launch the Extermination Campaigns?

He saw the Communists as a major threat to Nationalist rule and wanted to destroy their rural base.

Why did the early Extermination Campaigns fail?

The Communists used guerrilla tactics, local knowledge and flexible forces to avoid defeat.

What was the significance of the fifth Extermination Campaign?

The GMD used stronger forces and blockhouse tactics to encircle the Jiangxi Soviet, forcing the Communists to abandon it in 1934.

What was the Jiangxi Soviet?

A Communist base area in southern China, established in 1931 and led by Mao and other CCP leaders.

Why did the Communists leave Jiangxi in 1934?

The fifth GMD Extermination Campaign encircled their base with blockhouses and threatened to destroy the Red Army.

What was the Long March?

The Communist Red Army's strategic retreat from Jiangxi in 1934–35 to escape Nationalist encirclement.

When did the Long March begin?

October 1934.

When did the main Communist force reach northern Shaanxi?

October 1935, after a journey of roughly 9,000 kilometres.

How many Communists began the Long March, approximately?

About 80,000–86,000 troops and personnel left the Jiangxi base with the main force.

How many survived the Long March, approximately?

Only around 7,000–8,000 of the original main force survived to reach the new base, although estimates vary.

What were the main difficulties of the Long March?

Nationalist attacks, hunger, disease, extreme weather, mountains, rivers and shortages of supplies.

What was the Zunyi Conference?

A January 1935 meeting during the Long March that strengthened Mao's influence in Communist leadership.

Why was the Long March important to Mao?

It strengthened his political authority and helped establish him as the dominant CCP leader.

Why was the Long March important to the CCP?

It preserved the core of the Communist movement, created a powerful revolutionary legend and helped the CCP build support in the north.

What was the new Communist base after the Long March?

The Yan'an region in Shaanxi, which became the CCP's main base.

How did the Long March affect Communist propaganda?

The CCP presented it as a heroic journey of sacrifice, endurance and resistance to oppression.

When did Japan invade Manchuria?

1931, after the Mukden Incident, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932.

When did full-scale war between China and Japan begin?

1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July.

What was the Second United Front?

The alliance formed in 1937 between the GMD and CCP to resist Japanese invasion.

Why did the GMD and CCP form the Second United Front?

Japanese expansion threatened both movements and created pressure for national resistance.

What was the role of the CCP during the war against Japan?

The CCP expanded its rural bases, organised guerrilla resistance, mobilised peasants and presented itself as patriotic and disciplined.

What was the role of the Red Army during the war against Japan?

Communist forces used guerrilla warfare, disrupted Japanese control and expanded their influence in occupied rural areas.

What was the role of the GMD during the war against Japan?

The Nationalist government fought major conventional battles and bore much of the burden of large-scale warfare against Japan.

What was the Hundred Regiments Offensive?

A major Communist military campaign in 1940 against Japanese forces and infrastructure in northern China.

Why did the war against Japan benefit the CCP politically?

It expanded Communist influence in rural areas and allowed the CCP to present itself as a defender of the Chinese people.

Why did the GMD become weaker during the war against Japan?

It suffered heavy casualties, inflation, corruption, economic strain and declining public confidence.

Why did the CCP's peasant policies attract support?

Communists reduced some rents and interest, disciplined their troops and promised land reform, improving their appeal in rural areas.

What was the New Fourth Army Incident of 1941?

A clash in which Nationalist forces attacked Communist troops, worsening tensions within the Second United Front.

When did Japan surrender in China?

August 1945, after Japan's defeat in the Second World War.

Why did the Civil War resume after 1945?

The GMD and CCP both sought control of China, and negotiations failed to settle the conflict.

When was the final phase of the Chinese Civil War?

1946–49, between the GMD and the CCP.

Which side initially had advantages in the Civil War?

The GMD had a larger internationally recognised government, more conventional military resources and major cities, but faced serious weaknesses.

Why was the GMD weakened economically during the Civil War?

War expenditure, corruption, shortages and runaway inflation undermined the economy and destroyed confidence in Nationalist money.

What was hyperinflation's effect on GMD support?

It reduced the value of wages and savings, caused hardship and made the Nationalists appear incompetent.

Why was the GMD's army weakened?

Low morale, corruption, poor leadership, desertions, conscription problems and overstretched supply lines reduced effectiveness.

How did the CCP win support during the Civil War?

It promoted land reform, disciplined soldiers, effective local organisation and a message of national renewal.

How did the CCP's military tactics help it win?

It used flexible guerrilla warfare before shifting to large-scale conventional operations when the GMD was weakened.

What was the Battle of Huai-Hai?

A decisive campaign from November 1948 to January 1949 in which Communist forces defeated a major Nationalist army in eastern China.

Why was the Battle of Huai-Hai important?

It destroyed a major part of the GMD's best forces and opened the way for Communist control of eastern China.

How did civilians help the CCP during the Civil War?

Many peasants supported or supplied Communist forces, providing food, transport, intelligence and recruits.

What was the role of the CCP's land policy during the Civil War?

Land redistribution and promises of reform helped gain peasant support, although campaigns could also involve coercion and violence.

What was a key political reason for the CCP's victory?

The CCP appeared more disciplined and less corrupt than the GMD, while the Nationalists lost public trust.

What was a key social reason for the CCP's victory?

The Communists gained strong peasant support through rural organisation and land reform promises.

What was a key economic reason for the CCP's victory?

GMD inflation and economic mismanagement undermined support, while the CCP drew on rural resources and local networks.

What was a key military reason for the CCP's victory?

Strong leadership, morale, effective strategy and victories such as Huai-Hai allowed the CCP to defeat major Nationalist armies.