2.1.2. Red Meat (Beef and Pork)

Meat

This term refers to the flesh of animals or the edible portion of their striated muscles.

Red Meat

This classification includes meats such as pork, beef, carabeef, chevon, venison, veal, and lamb.

White Meat

This classification includes fish and poultry.

Carcass

This term refers to an animal that has been slaughtered or butchered.

Meat Cut

This term refers to an apportioned carcass, which may be divided into large wholesale cuts or smaller retail cuts.

Beef

This meat is obtained from cattle.

Steer

This male cattle is castrated while young, before development of secondary sexual characteristics, to improve meat quality.

Stag

This male cattle is desexed after maturity.

Bull

This is a mature uncastrated male cattle, commonly used for breeding.

Heifer

This is a mature female cattle that has not borne a calf.

Cow

This is a mature female cattle that has borne calves.

Veal

This meat comes from young cattle; approximately 9 months old or generally under 12 months.

Lamb

This meat comes from a young sheep; under 1 year to about 14 months, and it is noted for tenderness and flavor.

Mutton

This meat comes from a mature sheep, approximately 1–1.5 years old or older than 14 months, and is generally tougher but richer in flavor.

Pork

This meat comes from a pig or swine and is commonly obtained from animals slaughtered at about 7–12 months of age.

Game

This term refers to the flesh of wild animals, such as deer and wild pig.

Lean tissue, connective tissue, fat, and bone

What are the 4 major structural components of meat?

Muscle Fibers

These are the basic structural units of lean meat and form bundles known as fasciculi.

Sarcolemma

This thin membrane surrounds each muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasm

This material within the muscle fiber contains water, proteins, enzymes, minerals, and vitamins.

Myofibrils

These microscopic structures inside muscle fibers produce the striated appearance of muscle and contain the contractile proteins actin and myosin.

Myosin

This major muscle protein is found in the thick filaments of the myofibrils.

Actin

This major muscle protein is found in the thin filaments of the myofibrils.

Collagen

This connective tissue protein is white, occurs in structures such as tendons, and softens during slow cooking by changing into gelatin.

Elastin

This yellowish, elastic connective tissue is also known as silver skin, is resistant to heat, acid, alkali and does not readily break down during cooking. This part is typically removed before cooking.

Adipose Tissue

This tissue refers to the fat located between and around muscles.

Marbling

This term refers to the distribution of intramuscular fat within meat, which contributes to tenderness, flavor, and juiciness.

Age, feed, exercise, and species

What factors may influence the amount of fat in an animal?

Older animals and animals receiving richer diets generally accumulate more fat, while limited exercise also favors greater fat deposition.

What factors may influence the amount of fat in an animal?

Young animals tend to have a soft backbone with a reddish or pinkish hue, while older animals have flinty, white bones.

How can the bone help indicate the age of an animal?

Fresh Meat

This market form is sold immediately after slaughter without chilling or freezing and is typically tender and pliant.

Chilled Meat

This market form is cooled to just above freezing, usually about 1–3°C, within 24 hours after slaughter, to prolong freshness while maintaining a soft texture.

Frozen Meat

This market form is preserved by reducing its internal temperature to about −2°C and is suitable for longer storage.

Cured Meat

This market form undergoes treatment with salt, nitrates, nitrites, or other curing agents to preserve the meat and develop characteristic flavor. Examples include corned beef, ham, bacon, tapa, tocino, and sausages.

Processed Meat

This market form undergoes additional preparation such as canning, freezing, or mechanical processing and includes luncheon meat, Vienna sausage, beef loaf, frozen meat pies, and frozen morcon.

Pre-Rigor Stage

This post-mortem stage occurs immediately after slaughter when the muscles remain soft, pliable, and flexible, with maximum tenderness and moisture.

Rigor Mortis

This post-mortem stage occurs when muscles stiffen, shorten, and become rigid due to ATP depletion, making the meat tough and undesirable for cooking.

Post-Rigor Stage

This post-mortem stage occurs after rigor mortis when meat gradually tenderizes during aging, improving eating quality.

Actin and myosin gradually lose firmness, water is expelled from the muscle, and accumulation of lactic acid contributes to natural tenderization.

What happens during tenderization after rigor mortis?

7.0 - 7.2 to around 5.5.

What general change occurs in decrease in meat pH after slaughter?

Its high moisture and protein content provide favorable conditions for rapid microbial growth.

Why does fresh meat spoil easily when improperly stored?

1 - 4°C

If meat will be used within 2 - 4 days, at what temperature should it generally be refrigerated according to the material?

Approximately −2 to −18°C

For longer storage, what freezing temperature range is given in the material?

Moist-Heat Cooking

This general cooking method is best suited to tough cuts containing more connective tissue, using low, slow heat to convert collagen into gelatin.

Stewing

This moist-heat method cooks meat in liquid at a low temperature for an extended period.

Braising

This moist-heat method involves searing meat first and then slowly cooking it covered in liquid.

Dry-Heat Cooking

This general cooking method is best suited to tender cuts and uses relatively high heat with little or no added moisture.

Roasting

This dry-heat method cooks meat uncovered in an oven with circulating heat.

Broiling

This dry-heat method exposes meat to direct radiant heat from above.

Frying

This dry-heat method cooks meat in hot fat, either shallow or deep.

Chuck

Which beef cut is less tender and high in connective tissue, making braising or stewing appropriate?

Rib

Which tender, well-marbled beef cut is suited to roasting or grilling?

Short Loin

Which very tender beef cut is suited to grilling or roasting?

Sirloin

Which tender beef cut is suited to grilling or roasting?

Round

Which lean, moderately tough beef cut may be roasted or braised?

Brisket

Which tough, collagen-rich beef cut benefits from slow cooking?

Plate

Which fatty beef cut may be braised or used for ground beef?

Flank

Which lean, flavorful beef cut benefits from marinating and grilling?

Shank

Which very tough beef cut is suited to braising or soups?

Shoulder

Which pork cut is tough but flavorful and is suited to braising or pulled-pork preparation?

Also identified as Boston butt or picnic.

Which pork cut is tough but flavorful and is suited to braising or pulled-pork preparation?

Loin

Which tender pork cut is suited to roasting or grilling?

Belly

Which pork cut has a high fat content and is commonly roasted or processed into bacon?

Leg

Which lean pork cut is commonly roasted or cured? Also known as ham.

Spareribs

Which connective-tissue-rich pork cut is suited to slow roasting or barbecuing?

Hock

Which tough pork cut is suited to soups or braising?

They coagulate, causing muscle fibers to contract and shrink; excessive cooking leads to moisture loss and a tough, stringy, or rubbery texture.

What happens to the major muscle proteins actin and myosin during cooking?

Collagen converts to gelatin, helping tenderize the meat.

What happens to collagen when tough meat is exposed to prolonged moist heat?

The fat melts and escapes from the muscle, contributing to shrinkage while also influencing flavor.

What happens to meat fat as temperature increases during cooking?

Larding

This technique involves inserting strips of fat into lean meat to improve moisture and richness during cooking.

Barding

This technique involves wrapping meat with a layer of fat, such as bacon, to reduce moisture loss during cooking.

Rare

At this stage of doneness, meat remains bright red in the center with minimal protein coagulation.

Medium

At this stage of doneness, the meat has a pink center as myoglobin begins to denature.

Well-Done

At this stage of doneness, meat becomes brown-gray throughout because of extensive myoglobin denaturation and protein coagulation.

Pale, Soft, and Exudative Meat (PSE)

This meat-quality defect, primarily associated with pork, produces pale color, soft texture, and poor water-holding capacity due to a rapid post-slaughter decline in pH.

5.1 - 5.2

What pH characteristic is associated with PSE meat according to the material?

Genetic susceptibility and pre-slaughter stress, including rough handling, poor chilling practices, and overheating.

What factors may predispose meat to PSE?

Paler color, soft texture, high water loss, reduced juiciness, and reduced tenderness.

What are the major quality effects of PSE meat?

Dark, Firm, and Dry Meat (DFD)

This meat-quality defect is characterized by dark color, firm texture, and high water-holding capacity and generally results from a high ultimate pH caused by depletion of muscle glycogen before slaughter.

6.0 - 6.1

What pH range is associated with DFD meat?

Pre-slaughter stress and glycogen depletion, rapid temperature changes, rough handling, and certain animal factors such as age or species.

What factors may contribute to DFD meat?

Firm, tough, and relatively dry because of its texture.

Despite its high water-holding capacity, how may DFD meat feel when eaten?

Because curing agents such as nitrates react with meat pigments.

Why do cured meats often develop a characteristic pink color?

Possible microbial contamination and spoilage.

What do green, yellow, or iridescent discolorations generally indicate in meat?

A mild, neutral odor without offensive smells.

What odor should good-quality fresh meat normally have?

Unacceptable Odors

These odors are clear indicators of spoilage and may be described as sulfurous, rancid, rotten, or sour.

Tenderness, juiciness, and flavor

What are the three primary desirable eating qualities of meat emphasized in the material?

Collagen breaks down into gelatin during cooking, whereas elastin is more heat-resistant and remains tough.

Why does collagen respond differently to cooking than elastin?

Younger age, less exercise, female or castrated animals, and greater marbling.

What animal characteristics are generally associated with greater meat tenderness?

Dense, coarse fibers and parallel fiber arrangements tend to be tougher, while finer fibers and circumferential arrangements tend to be more tender.

How does muscle-fiber structure influence tenderness?

Intramuscular fat melts during cooking, helping separate muscle fibers and contributing to a more tender texture.

How does marbling improve tenderness?

Aging

This ripening process allows meat muscle fibers to break down naturally, improving tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and color.

Dry Aging

This aging method hangs carcasses under cool, humid conditions of about 34–38°F and 70–90% humidity for 1.5–6 weeks.

Fast Aging

This aging method uses warmer conditions of about 70°F and 85–90% humidity for approximately 2 days, with UV light used to inhibit microbial growth.

Vacuum-Packed Aging

This aging method divides meat into smaller cuts, seals them in moisture-proof vacuum packaging, and holds them under refrigeration.

Papain from papaya, bromelain from pineapple, ficin from figs, and trypsin

What proteolytic enzymes are identified as meat tenderizers in the combined materials?

Bromelain

This pineapple enzyme is identified in the earlier material as acting primarily on collagen.

Papain

This papaya enzyme acts on muscle proteins and elastin and is used as a meat tenderizer.

They help break down surface proteins and solubilize collagen.

How do acidic marinades containing vinegar, wine, or lemon juice tenderize meat?

Potassium, calcium, and magnesium salts

Which salts are identified as helping retain moisture and break down muscle-fiber components during tenderization?