19th-Century Europe Midterm Study Guide

Louis XV

King of France from 1715–1774. His costly wars and financial problems weakened the monarchy and contributed to the conditions that led to the French Revolution.

National Assembly

Formed in 1789 by representatives of the Third Estate during the French Revolution. It claimed to represent the French nation and challenged the absolute monarchy, helping establish a new political order.

Jacobins

A radical political club during the French Revolution, especially influential from 1789–1794. Led by figures such as Maximilien Robespierre, they supported a republic and radical reforms and became associated with the Reign of Terror.

Committee of Public Safety

Established in 1793 during the French Revolution to defend France against foreign enemies and internal opposition. It exercised emergency government powers and directed the Reign of Terror to protect the revolution.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A law passed in 1790 that reorganized the Catholic Church in France under government control. It required clergy to swear loyalty to the state, dividing the clergy and increasing conflict between revolutionaries and Catholics.

Napoleonic Code

A civil law code established by Napoleon in 1804. It promoted legal equality for men and protected private property, preserving some revolutionary reforms while restricting women's rights and reinforcing male authority.

Continental System

Napoleon's economic blockade, introduced in 1806, intended to weaken Britain by preventing European countries from trading with it. It damaged European economies and contributed to opposition against Napoleon.

Congress of Vienna

A conference held in 1814–1815 after Napoleon's defeat. European leaders restored monarchies, redrew borders, and established a balance of power to prevent another major European conflict and suppress revolutionary movements.

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister and conservative statesman from 1809–1848. He opposed liberalism, nationalism, and revolution, working to preserve monarchies and suppress movements that threatened the existing political order.

Carbonari

Secret revolutionary societies active in Italy during the early 19th century. They opposed foreign domination and supported constitutional government, contributing to the growth of Italian nationalism and liberalism.

Robert Malthus

English economist (1766–1834) who argued in his 1798 essay that population tends to grow faster than food production. He believed this imbalance would lead to poverty, famine, and competition for resources.

Luddites

British textile workers who protested industrialization, especially from 1811–1816, by destroying machinery they believed threatened their jobs and wages. Their movement reflected workers' fears about mechanization and changing working conditions.

Corn Laws

British tariffs and restrictions on imported grain introduced in 1815 and repealed in 1846. They protected landowners from foreign competition but kept food prices high, leading to opposition from industrialists and working-class reformers.

Robert Peel

British Conservative politician and prime minister who repealed the Corn Laws in 1846. His decision marked a major victory for free trade and demonstrated the declining political influence of traditional agricultural protectionism.

Methodists

A Protestant Christian movement founded by John Wesley in the 18th century. It emphasized personal faith, disciplined living, and charity, attracting many working-class followers during Britain's industrialization.

Ultra-royalists

Extreme French monarchists who gained influence after Napoleon's defeat in 1815. They wanted to restore the traditional power of the monarchy, aristocracy, and Catholic Church and reverse many changes brought by the French Revolution.

Louis-Philippe

King of the French from 1830–1848, who came to power following the July Revolution. He ruled a constitutional monarchy but favored wealthy and middle-class interests, and opposition to his government contributed to the Revolution of 1848.

Carlsbad Decrees

Measures introduced in 1819 by the German Confederation under Metternich's influence. They imposed censorship, restricted universities, and suppressed liberal and nationalist organizations to prevent revolutionary movements.

Peterloo Massacre

An event in Manchester, England, in 1819, when cavalry attacked a peaceful gathering demanding political representation and parliamentary reform. Eighteen people were killed, and the incident increased public criticism of Britain's political system.

Karl Marx

German philosopher and socialist (1818–1883) who criticized capitalism and argued that history was shaped by conflict between social classes. In The Communist Manifesto (1848), coauthored with Friedrich Engels, he called for workers to overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless society.