symbolic interactionism

what is symbolic interactionism?

symbolic interactionism is the focus on our ability to create the social world through actions and interactions as based on the meanings we give to situations

we convey these meanings through symbols, especially language

The work of G____ H____ M___ (1863-1931) forms the b___ for that of many later i___.

The work of George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) forms the basis for that of many later interactionists.

G.H. Mead → Symbols versus instincts

• Mead observed that, unlike animals, our behaviour is not shaped by f____, p__-programmed instincts. We do not simply respond to a s___ in an a___, p___-d____ way.

• Instead, we respond to the world by giving doing what?. In effect, we c____ and i____ a world of m____. We do this by attaching s____ to the world. A symbol is something that s____ for or r____ something else.

• , Instead, an interpretive phase comes between the s____ and our r____ to it - before we know how to respond to the stimulus, we have to interpret its meaning. Once we have done this, we can then choose an a____ r____.

G.H. Mead → Symbols versus instincts

• Mead observed that, unlike animals, our behaviour is not shaped by fixed, pre-programmed instincts. We do not simply respond to a stimulus in an automatic, pre-determined way.

• Instead, we respond to the world by giving meanings to the things that are significant to us. In effect, we create and inhabit a world of meanings. We do this by attaching symbols to the world. A symbol is something that stands for or represents something else.

• , Instead, an interpretive phase comes between the stimulus and our response to it - before we know how to respond to the stimulus, we have to interpret its meaning. Once we have done this, we can then choose an appropriate response.

what is an example of Symbolic Interactionism

Mead illustrates this with an example. When one dog snarls at another, the snarl acts as a direct stimulus, to which the second dog responds instinctively, automatically adopting a defensive posture. There is no conscious interpretation by the dog of the other’s actions. By contrast, if someone sends a thumbs up 👍, this is a symbol that can have different meanings. To understand what is going on, you must interpret the meaning of this symbol — for example, are they being friendly, agreeing, or being sarcastic? Only once you have interpreted the meaning can you decide how to respond.

G.H. Mead → Taking the role of the other

• In Mead's view how do we interpret people’s meanings?

• Our ability to take the role of the other develops through s____ i___. We first do this as y____ c___: through i____( c___) play when we take on the role of s____ o____ such as p___, and learn to see o____ as they see us.

• Later, we come to see ourselves from the point of view of the w___ c____ - the g___ o___.

• For Mead, to function as members of society, we need the abilityof what? Through s____ s____, especially l____, we become c___ of the ways of acting that others require of us.

G.H. Mead → Taking the role of the other

• In Mead's view, we interprets people’s meanings behind their actions by taking the role of the other - putting ourselves in the place of the other person and seeing ourselves as they see us.

• Our ability to take the role of the other develops through social interaction. We first do this as young children: through imitative( copying) play when we take on the role of significant others such as parents, and learn to see ourselves as they see us.

• Later, we come to see ourselves from the point of view of the wider community - the generalised other.

• For Mead, to function as members of society, we need the ability to see ourselves as others see us. Through shared symbols, especially language, we become conscious of the ways of acting that others require of us.

Herbert B_____!

After Mead's d___, B____ (1900-87) did much to refine his ideas. B____ identified three key principles:

1. Our actions are based on the m____ we give to s___, e___, p___ etc. Unlike animals, our actions are not based on a____ r____ to s___.

2.  These meanings arise from the i___ process. They are not f___ at the o____ of the i_____, but are n____ and c____ to some extent.

3. The meanings we give to situations are the result of the i____ p____ we use - especially taking the r__> f of the other.

Herbert Blumer

After Mead's death, Blumer (1900-87) did much to refine his ideas. Blumer identified three key principles:

1. Our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations, events, people etc. Unlike animals, our actions are not based on automatic responses to stimuli.

2. These meanings arise from the interaction process. They are not fixed at the outset of the interaction, but are negotiable and changeable to some extent.

3. The meanings we give to situations are the result of the interpretive procedures we use - especially taking the role of the other.

Herbert Blumer

• Blumer's view of human conduct contrasts strongly with s____ theories such as f____.

• Functionalists see the i____ as a p____, p____ responding to the s___ n____.

• what 2 things ensure that individuals conform to society's norms and perform their roles in fixed and predictable ways?

• By contrast, Blumer argues that although our action is partly predictable why?

• There is always some room for n____ and c___ in how we perform our roles - even where very strict rules prevail, as in 't____ i____' such as p____.

Herbert Blumer

• Blumer's view of human conduct contrasts strongly with structural theories such as functionalism.

• Functionalists see the individual as a puppet, passively responding to the system's needs.

• Socialisation and social control ensure that individuals conform to society's norms and perform their roles in fixed and predictable ways.

• By contrast, Blumer argues that although our action is partly predictable because we internalise the expectations of others, it is not completely fixed.

• There is always some room for negotiation and choice in how we perform our roles - even where very strict rules prevail, as in 'total institutions' such as prisons.

what is the best-known application of interactionist ideas?

The best-known application of interactionist ideas is that of labelling theory.

Labelling theory

• Labelling theorists use interactionist concepts in the study of many areas, including e___f____, h___, and c___ and deviance.

• Here, we examine three key interactionist concepts that underpin labelling theory - what are these concepts?

Labelling theory

• Labelling theorists use interactionist concepts in the study of many areas, including education, health, and crime and deviance.

• Here, we examine three key interactionist concepts that underpin labelling theory - the definition of the situation, the looking glass self, and career

Labelling theory →The definition of the situation

• A definition of something is of course a l____ for that thing.

• ._._ T_____ (1966) argued that if people define a situation as r___, then it will have r____ c____.

• If we b____ something to be t____, then this b___ will affect how we a____, and this in turn may have c_____ for those involved.

• For example, if a teacher labels a pupil as 't_____' (whether or not they really are), the teacher will be likely to act d____ towards the pupil, e.g. punishing them more h____.

Labelling theory → The definition of the situation

• A definition of something is of course a label for that thing.

• W.l. Thomas (1966) argued that if people define a situation as real, then it will have real consequences.

• If we believe something to be true, then this belief will affect how we act, and this in turn may have consequences for those involved.

• For example, if a teacher labels a pupil as 'troublesome' (whether or not they really are), the teacher will be likely to act differently towards the pupil, e.g. punishing them more harshly.

Labelling theory → The looking glass self

• C____ the (1922) uses this idea to describe how we develop our s____-c____ - our idea of who we are.

• He argues that our self-concept arises how? In interactions, by taking the role of the other, we come to see o____ as they see u___.

• In other words, others act as a looking glass to us - we see our self m___ in the way they respond to us.

• Through this process, what occurs?

• Labelling theorists use the definition of the situation and the looking glass self to understand the effects of l____. For example, an individual may find that relatives or psychiatrists define them as m____ i____ and respond to them d_____, reflecting their view of them as s____ or a___.

• Through the looking glass self, the label becomes part of the individual's s____-c____. They take on the r__ of 'mental patient' and a s____-f___ prophecy is created when they act it out. Even if the initial definition of them was f____, it has become t____ and may have r____ c_____. For example, they may find themselves detained in a psychiatric hospital.

Labelling theory → The looking glass self

• Cooley (1922) uses this idea to describe how we develop our self-concept - our idea of who we are.

• He argues that our self-concept arises out of our ability to take the role of the other. In interactions, by taking the role of the other, we come to see ourselves as they see us.

• In other words, others act as a looking glass to us - we see our self mirrored in the way they respond to us.

• Through this process, a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs - we become what others see us as.

• Labelling theorists use the definition of the situation and the looking glass self to understand the effects of labelling. For example, an individual may find that relatives or psychiatrists define them as mentally ill and respond to them differently, reflecting their view of them as sick or abnormal.

• Through the looking glass self, the label becomes part of the individual's self-concept. They take on the role of 'mental patient' and a self-fulfilling prophecy is created when they act it out. Even if the initial definition of them was false, it has become true and may have real consequences. For example, they may find themselves detained in a psychiatric hospital.

Labelling theory → Career

• In normal definition, what is a career ?

• However, labelling theorists such as B____ (1961; 1963) and L____ (1962) have extended the concept to apply it to groups such as m____ s___, m____ s____ and those suffering from p___

• For example, link careers and mental illness?

Labelling theory → Career

• In normal definition, a career is the stages through which an individual progresses in their occupation, each with its own status, job title, etc.

• However, labelling theorists such as Becker (1961; 1963) and Lemert (1962) have extended the concept to apply it to groups such as medical students, marijuana smokers and those suffering from paranoia

• For example, in relation to mentat illness, we can see the individual as having a career running from 'pre-patient' with certain symptoms, through labelling by a psychiatrist, to hospital in-patient, to discharge. Each stage has its own status and problems. For example, on discharge the ex-patient may find it hard to reintegrate into society. And just as a 'normal' career may give us our status, so 'mental patient' may become our master status in the eyes of society.

• ✓ - Interactionism is generally regarded as a voluntaristic theory what does this mean?

• ✘ - However, labelling theory has been accused of determinism- what does this mean?

• ✓ - Interactionism is generally regarded as a voluntaristic theory that emphasises free will and choice in how we act.

• ✘ - However, labelling theory has been accused of determinism- of seeing our actions and identities as shaped by the way others label them.

G_____ d____ model

• Labelling theory describes how the self is shaped through i_____. It often sees the i_____ as the p___ v___ of other people's labels.

• By contrast, the work of another interactionist, G_____ describes how we a_____ c___ our 's___' by manipulating other people's i_____ of us.

• G____ approach is often described as d____ because he uses a____ with drama as a framework for a____ s____ i____

• We are all 'a______', acting out 's____', using 'p____', resting 'b____' between.'p____' we present to our 'audiences' and so on. Our aim is to carry off a c____ p_____ of the role we have adopted - just as the actor aims to p____ the audience that they are really R____ from E____

Goffman's dramaturgical model

• Labelling theory describes how the self is shaped through interaction. It often sees the individual as the passive victim of other people's labels.

• By contrast, the work of another interactionist, Goffman describes how we actively construct our 'self' by manipulating other people's impressions of us.

• Goffman's approach is often described as dramaturgical because he uses analogies with drama as a framework for analysing social interaction.

• We are all 'actors', acting out 'scripts', using 'props', resting 'backstage' between.'performances' we present to our 'audiences' and so on. Our aim is to carry off a convincing performance of the role we have adopted - just as the actor aims to persuade the audience that they are really Rue from Euphoria .

Goffman's dramaturgical models → impression management

• A key dramaturgical concept is impression management and presentation of self

• For Goffman, we seek to do what?

• To do so, we must c____ the i____ our p____ gives. This involves constantly s____ our a____ to see how they are r____, and m____ and an_____ our performance to present a c___ image.

• As s____ actors, we have many techniques for impression management such as what ?

• By using these techniques s____, we can 'p____' for the kind of person we want our audience to b____ we are

• Goffman uses the dramaturgical analogy to describe the different s____ of interactions. As in the theatre, there is a f___' or s____ where we a___ o___ our roles, while backstage, we can step out of our role and 'b___ o____'.

• What is an example of a classroom and a common room?

Goffman's dramaturgical models → impression management

• A key dramaturgical concept is impression management and presentation of self

• For Goffman, we seek to present a particular image of ourselves to our audiences.

• To do so, we must control the impression our performance gives. This involves constantly studying our audience to see how they are responding, and monitoring and adjusting our performance to present a convincing image.

• As social actors, we have many techniques for impression management. We may use language, tone of voice, gestures and facial expressions, as well as props and settings such as dress, make-up

• By using these techniques skilfully, we can 'pass' for the kind of person we want our audience to believe we are

• Goffman uses the dramaturgical analogy to describe the different settings of interactions. As in the theatre, there is a 'front' or stage where we act out our roles, while backstage, we can step out of our role and 'be ourselves'.

• For example, the classroom is a front region where students must put on a convincing role-performance for the teacher,while the common room is a back region where they can 'drop the act'. However, the common room may become another front region where students may have to carry off a different performance in front of their friends.

Goffman's dramaturgical models → Roles

• Goffman's view of roles d____ sharply from that of functionalism.

• how do Functionalists see roles ?

• Goffman rejects this view. Instead, he argues, there is a 'g____' or r___ d___ between our real self and our roles.

• Like the Zendaya who is not really Rue , we are not really the r___ we play. In Goffman's view, roles are only l____ s____ by s____ and we have a good deal of f____ in how we play them - for example, some teachers are s___, others e___-g__

• The idea of role distance also suggests what?

• In Goffman's studies, the actor sometimes resembles a c____ t_____, m____ their audience into a_____ an i____ that conceals their t___ s___ and r___ m___.

• In the dramaturgical model, appearances are e____ and actors seek to present themselves to their best advantage.

Goffman's dramaturgical models → Roles

• Goffman's view of roles differs sharply from that of functionalism.

• Functionalists see roles as tightly 'scripted' by society and they see us as fully internalising our scripts through socialisation. As a result, they become part of our identity and society determines exactly how we will perform them.

• Goffman rejects this view. Instead, he argues, there is a 'gap' or role distance between our real self and our roles.

• Like the Zendaya who is not really Rue , we are not really the roles we play. In Goffman's view, roles are only loosely scripted by society and we have a good deal of freedom in how we play them - for example, some teachers are strict, others easy-going

• The idea of role distance also suggests that we do not always believe in the roles we play

• In Goffman's studies, the actor sometimes resembles a confidence trickster, manipulating their audience into accepting an impression that conceals their true self and real motives.

• In the dramaturgical model, appearances are everything and actors seek to present themselves to their best advantage.

Evaluation of symbolic interaction - ✓strengths

What is a strength of symbolic interactionism?

Evaluation of symbolic interaction - ✓strengths

✓Interactionism largely avoids the determinism of structural theories such as functionalism. It recognises that people create society through their choices and meanings.

Evaluation of symbolic interaction - ✘limitations

✘-A limitation of symbolic interactionism is that it is more a c_____ of d____ concepts, rather. than a fully e____ theory.

• Sociologists like Goffman describe processes such what?

• However, this approach does not explain why what?

✘-It focuses on what? and ignores what? , and it fails to what?

✘- it cannot explain the c_____ p____ we observe in peoples behaviour.

• Functionalists such as T____ P_____ argue that these p____ are the result of s____ n___ and values that dictate behaviour within society

✘- R____ (1975) offers interesting evidence to show that interactionism lacks an idea of s___.

• Reynolds sent a questionnaire to ___ interactionists, of whom ___ responded.

• When asked to identify what? the most popular were 'r___' (chosen by ___), 's____' (___) and 'i___' (___).

• Only two chose 'p____' or ‘c____' - concepts that s___ sociologists see as crucial.

• why is Ignoring s____ factors is a limitation ?

✘- Not all action is m____ - like W____ category of traditional action, much is performed u_____ or r____ and may have little m____ for actors. If so, interactionism lacks the means to explain it.

✘- E____ such as G____ argue that interactionism is correct in focusing on actors’ meanings, but that it fails to explain what?

Evaluation of symbolic interaction - ✘limitations

✘-A limitation of symbolic interactionism is that it is more a collection of descriptive concepts, rather. than a fully explanatory theory.

• Sociologists like Goffman describe processes such as impression management and social roles, which help us understand interactions in detail.

• However, this approach does not explain why these patterns exist in the first place or how wider social structures, such as class, power and inequality, shape behaviour.

✘-It focuses on face-to-face interactions and ignores wider social structures such as class inequality, and it fails to explain the origin of labels.

✘- it cannot explain the consistent patterns we observe in peoples behaviour.

• Functionalists such as Talcott Parsons argue that these patterns are the result of shared norms and values that dictate behaviour within society.y

✘- Reynolds (1975) offers interesting evidence to show that interactionism lacks an idea of structure.

• Reynolds sent a questionnaire to 124 interactionists, of whom 84 responded.

• When asked to identify the concepts they felt were essential, the most popular were 'role' (chosen by 38), 'self' (37) and 'interaction' (37).

• Only two chose 'power' or ‘class' - concepts that structural sociologists see as crucial.

• Ignoring structural factors is a limitation because it fails to explain how wider forces such as class, power and inequality shape individuals’ behaviour and opportunities. As a result, it provides an incomplete understanding of society by focusing only on small-scale interactions rather than the broader social context.

✘- Not all action is meaningful - like Weber's category of traditional action, much is performed unconsciously or routinely and may have little meaning for actors. If so, interactionism lacks the means to explain it.

✘- Ethnomethodologists such as Garfinkel argue that interactionism is correct in focusing on actors’ meanings, but that it fails to explain how actors actively create those meanings through everyday interactions.