Philosophy Lecture Notes: Arguments, Ethics, Egoism, and Utilitarianism

Flashcards covering philosophical arguments, fallacies, Simple Subjectivism, Emotivism, Cultural Relativism, Egoism, and Utilitarianism.

What does it mean to say that an argument is valid?

If the premises are true, then the conclusion would have to be true (the conclusion logically follows from the premises).

What does it mean to say that an argument is sound?

The argument is valid and its premises are true.

What is the Begging the Question / Circular Reasoning fallacy?

A fallacy where at least one of the premises assumes the truth of the conclusion.

What defines the fallacy of Post hoc ergo propter hoc?

Assuming that because event y came after event x, then event y was CAUSED by event x, ignoring external factors and reasons.

What is the Straw Man fallacy?

Attacking a presumably weaker argument that is not the actual position your opponent is taking.

What is an Appeal to popularity fallacy?

Claiming that an idea is popular and therefore true, with no other consideration.

What is Moral equivalency?

Claiming that two people or organizations have both done morally bad things and therefore their moral wrongdoing is equally severe.

What is the central claim of Simple Subjectivism?

"X is wrong" means "I believe that X is wrong."

What is the argument from lack of consensus regarding Simple Subjectivism?

For any moral claim that can be made, one can probably find someone who disagrees; if there were objective moral facts, we would have discovered them by now.

Why does Simple Subjectivism imply that people are infallible about morality?

Moral claims are just reports about beliefs; if you are being truthful about your opinion, then you are always correct.

Why does Simple Subjectivism imply that people never genuinely disagree about morality?

Because morality is relative to individual beliefs and moral claims are merely reports of opinions, leaving no objective moral truths to genuinely disagree about.

How does Emotivism differ from Simple Subjectivism in translating moral claims?

Emotivism translates moral claims as emotional expressions rather than reports about factual beliefs.

Why can Emotivism not differentiate between good ethical arguments and bad ethical arguments?

Because moral claims are emotional expressions rather than incompatible factual claims, making moral disagreements behave like fans of rival sports teams.

What is the central claim of Cultural Relativism?

There are no objective moral facts; ethics is relative to the culture.

Which historical anecdote is cited as support for Cultural Relativism?

The anecdote of Darius involving the Greeks and Callatians.

How does the practice of female genital mutilation function as an Argument from Counter-Examples against Cultural Relativism?

Under Cultural Relativism, there is no standing to make judgment on other cultures, meaning one cannot say something is morally wrong, just culturally different.

Why can Cultural Relativism not make sense of the Argument from Cultural Progress?

It cannot account for a society improving or worsening over time because that implies an objective standard, and it implies that moral rebels going against the norm are morally worse than those sticking to the status quo.

What is the central claim of Egoism?

It denies that ethics looks like what people assume and holds that there are objective moral facts requiring you to do what is best for yourself.

What is the difference between Psychological Egoism (PE) and Ethical Egoism (EE)?

Psychological Egoism claims human beings always do what is best for themselves, whereas Ethical Egoism claims people SHOULD do what is good for themselves.

What is the difference between a descriptive claim and a normative claim?

A descriptive claim tries to describe what the world is like, while a normative claim states what the world should be like.

What is the argument from self-knowledge in support of Egoism?

I am the expert on myself and you are the expert on you; focusing on oneself utilizes expert knowledge of what is good for oneself and removes inefficiencies.

How does Ayn Rand refute the claim that Egoism equals laziness in Atlas Shrugged?

She expresses through fiction that egoism gives you moral duties towards yourself, meaning you owe it to yourself to work hard and achieve your goals.

What is the fundamental utilitarian principle?

There are objective truths about morality centered on interest in everyone's happiness (net happiness of an action), which sometimes require helping others instead of yourself.

How do Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill differ in their views on Utilitarianism?

Bentham focuses simply on maximizing happiness, whereas Mill focuses on maximizing happiness while distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures (animal vs. human pleasures), noting that "competent judges" prefer higher pleasures.