UNIT4 AOS1

What is a hydrolytic reaction?

The breakdown of a compound due to a reaction with water, where a larger molecule is broken down into smaller molecules (the reverse of a condensation reaction).

what compounds undergo only dispersion forces?

alkanes, alkenes and alkynes

what compounds undergo dispersions and dipole-dipole?

haloalkanes, aldehydes, ketones and esters

what compounds undergo dispersions and dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonding?

alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines and amides because they contain electronegative elements like oxygen and nitrogen which makes the bonds stronger

What is the general word equation for the hydrolysis of a triglyceride?

Triglyceride + Water -> Glycerol + Fatty acid

What is a substitution reaction?

A reaction where an atom or a group of atoms are swapped or replaced.

What is an addition reaction?

A reaction where two molecules combine to form a single larger molecule.

What is an elimination reaction?

The opposite of an addition reaction, where atoms are removed and a double bond (C=C) is formed.

What is a hydration reaction?

A reaction where water is added across a triple bond to form either a ketone or an aldehyde.

What is a condensation reaction?

The joining of two molecules while losing a water molecule. New covalent bonds are formed, and it is an endothermic reaction.

What is an esterification reaction?

A type of condensation reaction where an ester is formed.

What is the general word equation for the formation of a triglyceride?

Glycerol + Fatty acid -> Triglyceride + Water

What is a halogenation reaction?

A reaction where one or more halogens are added, typically using UV light to break the covalent bonds.

What is a combustion reaction (complete vs. incomplete)?

Complete: Hydrocarbon + O2 -> CO2 + H2O; Incomplete: Produces CO (carbon monoxide) if oxygen is limited.

What is a transesterification reaction?

A reaction used to form biodiesel: Triglyceride + Methanol -> Glycerol + Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME).

What is the reaction equation for the esterification of a fatty acid with methanol?

Fatty acid + Methanol -> Fatty acid methyl ester + Water

What are proteins?

Condensation polymers built from amino acid monomers.

What is the basic structure of an amino acid (2-amino acid)?

All components are attached to a central alpha carbon: a carboxyl group (-COOH), an amino group (-NH2), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group (side chain) that gives the amino acid its identity and properties.

What functional groups must be present at the ends of a polypeptide chain?

An -NH2 end and a -COOH head.

How do you determine the number of water molecules lost when peptide bonds form?

The number of water molecules released is always equal to the number of amino acids minus one (No. of amino acids - 1).

What is the structural pathway from triglycerides to lipids?

Triglycerides -> Fatty acids -> Lipids (which are fats and oils linked by an ester link).

Where is the double bond located in an Omega-3 vs. an Omega-6 fatty acid?

Omega-3: Has a carbon-carbon double bond on the 3rd carbon from the omega end. Omega-6: Has a carbon-carbon double bond on the 6th carbon from the omega end.

What are the common sources of Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids?

Omega-3: Mainly sourced from fatty fish species (salmon, tuna, mackerel). Omega-6: Mainly sourced from linoleic acid found in plant oils (corn oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil).

What are carbohydrates?

Simple ring sugars called monosaccharides, joined via condensation reactions to form polymers. This produces a glycosidic link (an oxygen bridge: -O-).

What are the three forms of glucose polymers and their structural shapes?

Starch: Linear; Glygogen: Branched; Cellulose: Linear.

What does percentage yield measure?

It is a measurement of the efficiency of a reaction.

What is the formula for Percentage Yield?

Percent Yield = (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) x 100

What does atom economy measure?

It tracks the efficiency of a reaction by evaluating how much of the starting reactant mass ends up in the desired product.

What is the formula for Atom Economy?

Percent Atom Economy = (M of desired product / M of reactants) x 100

What are the 4 generations of biofuels (increasing sustainability)?

1st Gen: Sourced from edible feedstocks. 2nd Gen: Sourced from non-edible feedstocks. 3rd Gen: Sourced from algae and other microbes. 4th Gen: Sourced from cyanobacteria, which absorbs more CO2.

Why are catalysis useful in green chemistry?

It minimizes energy use, but environmental issues need to be considered.

What are the requirements for an ideal catalyst?

They must utilize renewable feedstocks, produce less by-products, and have a longer catalytic lifetime.

What are the principles of designing safer chemicals?

Use alternative food packaging, choose more sustainable paths to yield less pollution, ensure it can break down easily via hydrolysis, and ensure it is non-toxic.

How do carbon-carbon single, double, and triple bonds compare in energy and length?

C-C triple bond has the highest bond energy and the shortest bond length.

What are allotropes?

Different physical forms that a single element can exist in.

What is the Degree of Unsaturation (DU) formula and meaning?

Formula: DU = (2C + 2 - H) / 2. Saturated means only C-C single bonds; Unsaturated means double, triple, or ring bonds are present.

What is the difference between aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons?

Aliphatic: Carbon atoms form open chains. Aromatic: Contains at least one benzene ring (alternating single and double bonds, C6H6).

What are the general formulas for Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes?

Alkanes: CnH2n+2; Alkenes: CnH2n; Alkynes: CnH2n-2.

What are cyclic hydrocarbons and arenens?

Hydrocarbons with a closed ring structure. Arenens are aromatic, benzene-based hydrocarbons (C6H6).

What are the 5 ways to represent organic compounds?

1. Molecular, 2. Empirical, 3. Structural, 4. Semi-Structural, 5. Skeletal.

What are the 4 main naming steps for organic compounds?

1. Identify parent/longest chain. 2. Circle functional groups. 3. Order from highest priority. 4. Combine components (parent last, alphabetical order, commas for numbers, dashes for words).

What are haloalkanes?

Molecules that have halogens (Group 17 elements) attached to the carbon chain. They take naming priority over alkyl groups.

What does volatile mean?

How readily a liquid substance will change state to form a vapor.

What is an alkanol?

An alkane with a hydroxyl (-OH) group replacing a hydrogen atom.

What is the difference between Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols?

Primary: Carbon has 2 hydrogens (-CH2OH). Secondary: Carbon has 1 hydrogen (-CHOH-). Tertiary: Carbon has 0 hydrogens (-COH-).

What are the two ways amide and amino can appear and be named?

1. -NH2 group: Requires a number prefix, ends in -amide. 2. -CONH2 group: At the end of the chain, no number prefix, ends in -amide.

What are Aldehydes and how are they named?

Compounds containing a -CHO group at the very end of the chain. They require no number prefix and end in -al.

What are Ketones and how are they named?

Compounds containing a carbonyl group (-CO-) within the chain. They end in -one.

What are Carboxylic Acids and how are they named?

Compounds containing a -COOH group at the end of the chain. They require no number prefix and end in -oic acid.

What are Esters, how do they form, and how are they named?

Compounds containing a -COO- link. They form via a condensation reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, and their names end in -oate.

the one with the —O is the alcohol and must go first t

What are structural isomers and what are their three types?

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements: positional isomers, chain isomers, and functional isomers.

What defines Boiling Point, Melting Point, and Viscosity?

Boiling Point: Liquid to gas (vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure). Melting Point: Solid to liquid at standard pressure. Viscosity: Resistance to flow/pressure.

What happens to IMF, Boiling/Melting Point, and Viscosity when moving from non-polar to polar?

Intermolecular Forces (IMF) increase, Boiling/Melting Point increase, Viscosity increase.

What happens to IMF, Boiling/Melting Point, and Viscosity when chain branching increases?

Intermolecular Forces (IMF) decrease, Boiling/Melting Point decrease, Viscosity increase.

What happens to IMF, Boiling/Melting Point, and Viscosity when the carbon chain length increases?

Intermolecular Forces (IMF) increase, Boiling/Melting Point increase, Viscosity increase.

as the number of successive carbons in a chain increases, the number of possible isomers…

increases

how do you find an isomer?

first drawing the original one and then reducing the parent chain by one and work backwards from there

glycogen, starch and cellulosea are all what?

glucose polymers

what is an amide/peptide bond ?

where an amine group reacts with a carboxylic acid to form -CONH2-

what are the different types of bonds and their qualities (spectroscopy)?

O-H AND N-H → Hydrogen bonds → highly polarity

C=H AND C-N → Dipole-Dipole bonds → moderately/highly polar

C-H AND C-C → Dispersion forces → weakly polar /non-polar

what do a-glucose molecules produce?

• amylose (starch)

• amylopectin

• glycogen

what do b-glucose molecules produce?

• cellulose

what happens to carbon double-double bonds when its a fatty acid?

after using the degree of unsaturation formula you must remove one from the answer produced ad the arty acid has a -COOH

what must you do when calculating glucose mass or molecular formula or an amino acid or peptide?

these all undergo condensation so water it lose, therefore you must lose water → - H2O