Chapter Two Methods in Psychology- Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner, Nock

empiricism

the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation

scientific method

a procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence

theory

a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon

hypothesis

a falsifiable prediction made a theory

empirical method

a set of rules and techniques for observation

operational definition

a description of a property in concrete measurable terms

instrument

anything that can detect the condition to which an operation definition refers

validity

how well the concrete, observable event indicates the property

reliability

the tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing

power

an instruments ability to detect small magnitudes of the property

demand characteristics

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

naturalistic observations

a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments

double-blind

an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed

filler items

questions on a survey meant to mislead test subjects

frequency distribution

a graphical representation of meaurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made

normal distribution

a mathematical defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the middle and decreases symmetrically in both directions

mode

the value of the most frequently observed measurement

mean

the average of all of the values

median

the value that is in the middle, that is greater than or equal to half of the measurements and less than or equal to half of the measurements

range

the value of the larges measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurement

standard deviation

a statistic that describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution

variable

a property whose value can vary across individuals over time

correlation

two variables are said to be correlated when variation in the value of one variable are synchonized with variation in the value of the other

correlation coefficient

a mathematical measure of both the direction and strength of a correlation, which is symbolized by the letter r

natural correlation

a correlation observed in the world around us// can tell us if two variables have a correlation but cant tell us why

Third variable correlation

two variable are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable

matched pairs

a technique whereby each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a third variable

matched samples technique

a technique whereby the participants in two groups are identical in terms of a third variable

Third variable problem

the fact that a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever present possibility of third variable correlation

experiment

a technique for establish the causal relationship between variables

manipulation

changing a variable in order to determine its causal power

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment

experimental group

the group of people whoa re exposed to a particular manipulation as compare to the control group in an experiment

control group

the group of people who are not exposed to the particular manipulation as compared to the experimental group

dependent variable

the variable that is measured in a study

self-selection

a problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group

random assignment

a procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or control group

internal validity

an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships

external validity

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been defined in a normal typical or realistic way

population

a complete collection of participants who might possible be measured

sample

a partial collection of people drawn from a population

case method

a procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual

random sampling

a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

informed consent

a written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail

debriefing

a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of the study

methods of psychology are meant to answer two basic questions, what are those questions?

1. What do people do

2. Why do they do it

How do psychologists answer the question "What do people do?"

by observing and measuring

How do psychologists answer the question "why do people do it?"

by looking for relationships between the things they measure

Dogmatists believed...

the best way to understand illness was to speculate about the body's functions

Empiricists believed...

the best way to understand illness was to observe sick people

_______ is the essential element to the scientific method

empiricism

_______ make specific predictions about what we should observe in the world if it is true, and what we should observe if it is not

theories

why are people so hard to study?

their complexity, variability, and their reactivity

Variability means...

that no two people do, say, think, or feel the same thing under exactly the same circumstances

Reactivity means...

People often think, feel, and act one way when they are being observed and a different way when they are not

How does empiricism differ from dogmatism?

dogmatism speculates while empiricism observes

what is the difference between a theory and hypothesis?

theory is an explanation while hypothesis is a prediction

why can theories be proven wrong and not right?

???

to observe means to

use ones senses to learn about the properties of an event or an object

what are some ways to reduce demand characteristics?

1. allowing those being observed to answer privately

2. allowing them to answer anonymously

3. measure behaviors that people cant control

expectations can influence...

observations

expectations can also influence...

reality

the most important property in an operational definition is

Validity

what are the two important properties of a measuring instrument?

reliability and power

what techniques do psychologists use to avoid seeing what the expect to see

double-blind observations

3 steps to coming to a conclusion

1. you measure a pair of variables

2. you measure again and again

3. you look for a pattern in the series of measurements you made

Positively correlated =

more-is-more relationship

negatively correlated =

more-is-less

unlike observations experiments tell us...

WHY two variables are correlated

what two key features do experiments have to tell us what observations cant?

1. manipulation

2. random assignment

3 steps to experimentation

1. perform a manipulation (thus creates two groups: control and experimental group)

2. measure the dependent variables

3. look to see if the if the manipulation of the independent variable produced changes in the independent variable

self selection

a problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group

most psychological studies involve _______ samples

non random

direct replication

an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment with a different sample

what two human tendencies are enemies of critical thinking??

1. Consider what you dont see

2. Dont doubt your conclusions

what makes science different from other human enterprises

science actively seeks to discover and remedy its own biases and errors

what spelled out the rules of ethical treatment of human subjects// this was installed after what war?

The Nuremberg Code of 1947 and the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964// after world war 2

What three basic principles did the Belmont report instill in those researching humans?

1. must show respect for persons

2. beneficent

3. Just

Freedom of Coercion (rule for conducting research)

psychologists may not force people to participate in any way

Protection of harm (rule for conducting research)

psychologists must take every possible precaution to protect their participants from physical or psychological harm

Risk-benefit analysis (rule for conducting research)

participants may not be asked to accept large risks such as severe pain, psychological trauma, or any risk larger than what they would experience in their every day lives

Deception (rule for conducting research)

May only use deception when applied to the test. May not use this if causes any sort of pain/trauma