Unit 1 Psych - Biological Basis of Behavior

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Nature

The influence of genetic and hereditary factors on individual development and behavior, often contrasted with nurture.

Nurture

The environmental influences that shape an individual's development and behavior, including experiences, upbringing, and learning.

Genetic predisposition

refers to an inherited tendency to develop certain traits or behaviors, influenced by both genetics and environmental factors.

Evolutionary perspective

A theoretical approach in psychology that examines behavior through the lens of evolution, positing that certain behaviors and traits have developed to enhance reproductive success and survival.

Natural Selection

The process in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring, leading to the evolution of species over time.

Eugenics

A controversial movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of a human population through selective breeding and other reproductive interventions.

Adoption Studies

Research methods that assess the influence of genetics and environment on behavior by comparing adopted individuals to their biological and adoptive families.

Twin Studies

Research methods used to study the influence of genetics and environment on psychological traits by comparing similarities and differences between identical twins and fraternal twins.

Family Studies

Research methods that examine the similarities and differences in behavior among family members to assess the influence of genetics and environmental factors.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and controlling behavior.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the limbs and organs, facilitating communication between the brain and the body.

Somatic Nervous System

A component of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements by directing the contraction of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

A component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that promotes restorative processes and conserves energy, often referred to as the "rest and digest" response.

Somatic nervous system

A component of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary control of skeletal muscles and mediating sensory information to the central nervous system.

Neurons

Fundamental cells of the nervous system that transmit signals throughout the body. They consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon to communicate information between the brain and different body parts.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, insulation, and protection for neurons. They play essential roles in maintaining homeostasis and supporting neuronal function.

Reflex arc

A neural pathway that coordinates a reflex action, involving a sensory neuron, interneuron (in some cases), and a motor neuron. It allows for immediate responses to stimuli without direct involvement of the brain.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS), enabling the perception of stimuli.

Motor neurons

Neurons that transmit impulses from the spinal cord and brain to muscles or glands, enabling movement and response to stimuli.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, playing a crucial role in reflexes and processing information.

Neural transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, facilitating signaling throughout the nervous system.

Action potential

The brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, leading to neurotransmitter release and signaling to other neurons.

All-or-nothing principle

The principle stating that a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all, meaning any stimulus below a certain threshold will not trigger an action potential.

Depolarization

The process during which the neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, allowing sodium ions to enter the cell and contributing to the generation of an action potential.

Refractory period

The phase following an action potential during which a neuron is less responsive to additional stimuli and cannot fire again until it returns to its resting state.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting an impulse, typically around -70 mV, where the inside of the neuron is more negative relative to the outside.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a nerve impulse, thereby terminating the signal and recycling the neurotransmitters for future use.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron, typically around -55 mV.

Multiple sclerosis

A demyelinating disease that affects the central nervous system, disrupting the transmission of electrical impulses in neurons and leading to various neurological symptoms.

Myasthenia gravia

an autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to weakness and fatigue of voluntary muscles.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that increase the likelihood of neighboring neurons firing an action potential.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of neighboring neurons firing an action potential.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control, often linked to pleasure and movement. Imbalances are associated with psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and conditions like Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, anxiety, and happiness, and plays a significant role in sleep and appetite regulation. Imbalances in serotonin levels are often linked to depression and other mood disorders.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, alertness, and responses to stress. It affects attention and reacting actions, and imbalances can influence mood disorders such as depression.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that plays a critical role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. It is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and imbalances can contribute to neurodegenerative diseases and mental health disorders.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that inhibits neuronal activity, helping to regulate anxiety, mood, and relaxation. It is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and deficiencies can lead to increased anxiety and seizures.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers produced by the body, involved in reducing pain and promoting feelings of well-being. They play a key role in the body's stress response and are associated with pleasure and reward.

Substance P

A neuropeptide that functions as a neurotransmitter and is involved in the transmission of pain signals. It plays a role in inflammatory responses and the perception of pain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in muscle contraction, attention, learning, and memory. It is involved in both the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that regulate various physiological processes in the body, including growth, metabolism, and mood.

Adrenaline

A hormone and neurotransmitter that prepares the body for "fight or flight" response during stressful situations. It increases heart rate, blood flow, and energy availability.

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissues that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger, thereby contributing to the long-term regulation of body weight.

Ghrelin

Known as the "hunger hormone," it stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and promotes fat storage, playing a key role in energy balance.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles by signaling the body to prepare for sleep as darkness falls.

Oxytocin

A hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland, plays a crucial role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, and childbirth. It is often referred to as the "love hormone" due to its association with affectionate behavior.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, or consciousness by affecting the brain's neurotransmitter systems. They can be categorized into stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens, each with distinct effects on the nervous system.

Agonists

Substances that mimic the effect of neurotransmitters by binding to and activating receptors in the brain, enhancing or facilitating neurotransmitter action.

Antagonists

Substances that block or inhibit the action of neurotransmitters at the receptor sites, often counteracting the effects of agonists.

Reuptake inhibitors

Substances that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the synapse, leading to increased availability in the brain and enhancing neurotransmitter effects.

Stimulants

Substances that increase activity in the brain and central nervous system, often enhancing alertness, attention, and energy.

Caffeine

A widely used stimulant that temporarily increases alertness, attention, and energy by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant drug that increases dopamine levels in the brain, leading to heightened energy, euphoria, and increased alertness.

Depressants

Substances that decrease activity in the brain and central nervous system, often resulting in sedative effects and reduced anxiety.

Alcohol

A central nervous system depressant that slows down brain function and can impair motor skills and judgment, often used recreationally.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often causing visual or auditory hallucinations. Common examples include LSD and psilocybin.

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug that can produce altered states of consciousness, euphoria, and can have both depressant and hallucinogenic effects.

Opioids

A class of drugs derived from the opium poppy that act by binding to opioid receptors in the brain. They are primarily used for pain relief but can also produce euphoria, leading to potential misuse and addiction.

Heroin

A powerful opioid derived from morphine, often used illicitly for its euphoric effects. It is highly addictive and can lead to severe physical dependence and overdose.

Tolerance

The reduced response to a drug after prolonged use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

A chronic disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking, continued use despite harmful consequences, and long-lasting changes in the brain's wiring and function.

Withdrawal

The group of symptoms that occur upon the abrupt discontinuation or reduction of a drug that has been used regularly, which may include anxiety, nausea, and physical pain.

Brainstem

Controls the flow of messages from the body to the brain; basic body functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

links medulla and thalamus, serving as message/relay stations, relaying signals pertaining to sleep, respiration, and movement

Midbrain

visual and auditory information processing and coordination; brain’s “reward center” that releases dopamine.

Reticular activating system

Controls the reticular formation, regulates sleep-wake cycle, turns on/off the processing of sensory stimuli

Reward center

releases dopamine when we do pleasurable activities

Cerebellum

coordinates muscle movement and balance, enables non-verbal learning/memory, and modulates emotions; involved in procedural learning. Injuries include not being able to walk, keeping balance, and using fingers.

Cerebral Cortex

thin surface outermost layer of interconnected neural cells that acts as our body’s control and information processing center; Plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thinking, speaking, and consciousness, and is organized into lobes based on function

Limbic System

associated with emotion, behavior, motivation, and memory formation

Thalamus

receives info for all senses except smell, directs sensory information to areas in the cortex, transmits outgoing motor replies to cerebellum and medulla.

Amygdala

controls aggression and fear

Hippocampus

processes memories, spatial perception; if damaged, lose the ability to form new memories

Hypothalamus

Governs many bodily “maintenance” activities: hunger/thirst, sexual behavior, “fight or flight”, and body temperature. Lateral: regulates hunger, Ventromedial: regulates fullness. (also works with the midbrain with the “reward center") Five Fs!

Pituitary Gland

controlled by hypothalamus and is responsible for the releasing of hormones throughout the body by controlling all the endocrine glands.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, regulating the body’s sleep cycle

Occipital Lobes

Receives information from the visual fields of opposite eyes for visual processing (at the back of the head)

Temporal Lobes

Hippocampus, auditory cortex, and Wernicke’s Area, which is responsible for language comprehension and forming meaningful sentences; Wernicke’s Aphasia: problems with meaning of speech due to damage.

Parietal Lobes

Receives sensory input for touch sensations, contains somatosensory cortex that takes in sensory input from corresponding body parts. Angular gyrus: written language, number processing, and elements of memory

Association Areas

Processes information from the senses; how we interpret sensory input

Somatosensory Cortex

Located at the front of the parietal lobe; receives and processes sensory information from the body such as touch, pain, temperature, and pressure.

Frontal Lobes

primarily responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, motor control, and speech production; key structures include the motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, and Broca’s Area

Linguistic processing

cognitive processes used to comprehend, produce, and interpret language, including sounds, grammar, and meaning.

Higher-order thinking

Critical analysis, evaluation, problem-solving, and creative reasoning

Executive functioning

set of mental skills managed primarily by the brain’s prefrontal cortex that enables goal-directed behavior, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, impulse control, planning, and task initiation.

Prefrontal Cortex

located at the front of frontal lobes and has the ability to recognize future consequences, making judgements, planning & decision making, abstract thought, attention, and personality

Motor Cortex

Sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements

Broca’s Area

Responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech.

Split Brain Research

Hemispheric Specialization

Neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to change, build, and reorganize after damage or experience.

EEG

Electrodes placed on scalp measures neuron activity

fMRI

Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans

Lesioning