AP Psychology- Unit 1 Terms Part 1

Heredity

Genetic characteristics passed down through biological ancestors

Environment

Non genetic influences like the factors that make up our surroundings

Natural Selection

A process of evolution where traits adapt to the environment to improve survival and reproduction

Eugenics

• Tried to control reproduction to shape the human race

• Goal: Promote desired traits and eliminate others through forced sterilization

Behavior Genetics

Seeks to examine the role of genes and environmental roles on our human behavior

Research Studies

Behavioral geneticists study real life situations to see how environment and heredity each affect behavior

Mono-zygotic Twins

Develop from a single egg (fertilized) that splits, making them genetically identical

Di-zygotic Twins

Develop from two separate fertilized eggs, making them genetically similar like regular siblings.

Twin Studies

Researchers use to estimate how much genes influence traits

Family and Adoption Studies

Creates two groups

Family and Adoption Studies (group 1)

Genetic relatives group which are the biological family

Family and Adoption Studies (group 2)

Environmental relatives which are the adopted family.

Gene

Environment Interaction

Epigenetics

The study of how environment and experiences can turn genes on or off without changing the DNA itself

Electrochemical Process

Uses electrical impulses and chemical tranmitter to send messages

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal chord

• Brain = Control Center

• Spinal Chord = information highway

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A network of nerves that extends through the body

• connects the CNS to other organs and parts of the body

• all the nerves branch out from the spinal column

• organized into 2 systems:

• somatic and autonomic

Somatic

• Voluntary movements (we can control it) - chose to do

• Carries messages to our skeleton/muscles

• in charge of sensation and reflexes

Autonomic

• Involuntary (we cannot control)

• Digestions, breathing, heartbeat, sweating

Sympathetic: Arousing

• '“fight or flight” survival response

• increases bodily functions

• speeds up heart rate, breathing, and sweating

Parasympathetic: Calming

• rest and digest

• decreases bodily functions

• slows heart rate, breathing, and sweating

Dendrite

Neuron

• receives signals from other neurons

Cell Body

Neuron

• maintain the cell

• aka: soma

Nucleus

nueron

• contains the genetic material of the cell

Axon

neuron

• conducts electrical impulses along the neuron

Myelin Sheath

neuron

• fatty material that insulates the axon

• speeds up transmission

Axon Terminals

neuron

• transmits electrical chemical signals to next neuron

Glial Cells

neuron

• These cells surround neurons

• provide nourishment

• insulate neurons

• clean up cellular waste

Sensory Neurons

• Receive environmental stimuli

• Carry information from your issue inward to word spinal cord/brain

• AKA: Afferent Neurons

Motor Neurons

• Transmit commands to muscles and glands

• Carry information from your CNS out to your body

• AKA: Efferent Neurons

Internuerons

• Act as a bridge between sensory and motor neurons

• Only found in brain and spinal cord (CNS)

• AKA: association/relay neurons

Reflex Arc

• neural pathway that allows for quick/automatic responses (reflexes)

• communication pathway skips the brain for faster reaction

Neural Communication

Neurons send messages using an electro chemical process

• uses electrical impulses and chemical messengers

• neurons carry messages in one direction only

all or none response

they work or they don’t

Neural Communication - electrical impulses

neurons use electrical impulses to send information within the neuron in a process called action potential

Action Potential

• dendrites allow ions to enter and charge the cell body

• when the charge reaches the threshold, an electric impulse is sent down the axon

Synapse

When the impulse reaches the axon terminals, chemicals, and released in to the group (this term)

• those chemicals (neurotransmitters) communicate with neighboring neurons

Depolarization

when a neuron is NOT passing message →fluid inside is negatively charged while the fluid outside is positively charged

• known as the resting negroid or resting potential

Refractory Period

neuron needs to return to its neural state before it can receive another impulse

Autoimmune disorder: multiple sclerosis (MS)

Cause: determination of the myelin sheath

• effect: slow communication between the brain and muscles

Autoimmune Disorder: Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

• cause: antibodies block or destroy the receptor sites on dendrites (those specifically related to movement)

• effect: impact muscle control and reaction time

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers

that transverse the synaptic gaps between neurons

• released by the swinging neuron→travel across the synapse→ bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neurons

Neurotransmitter: Excitatory Message

• stimulates the neuron

• neuron becomes more likely to produce an action potential

• speeds up neural activity

Neurotransmitter: Inhibitory Message

• calms the neuron

• neuron becomes less likely to produce an action potential

• slows neural activity

Neurotransmitter: Glutamate

Excitation

• increases neural activity

• crucial to learning and memory

• imbalances:

• too much→over stimulation→headaches→seizures

Neurotransmitter: Gaba

inhibitory

• reduces neural activity

• prevents over excitation of neurons

imbalances

• too much- drowsiness

• too little anxiety, insomnia, tremors, seizures

Neurotransmitter: Dopamine

• brains reward center

• experimenting pleasure and enjoyment

• influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

imbalances

• too much- linked to schizophrenia

• too little- linked to Parkinson’s disease

Neurotransmitter: Serotonin

• regulation of mood

• influences hunger, sleep, learning, memory

imbalances

• too much - serotonin syndrome

• too little- depression, sleep disorders, low appetite

Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine

• increased alertness

• “fight or flight” response

imbalances

• too much- anxiety

• too little- depression, fatigue, lack of focus

Neurotransmitter: Endorphins

• response to pain & “fight or flight”

• body’s natural painkiller → influences perception of pain

• can replace pain with a neutral or pleasurable feeling (ex: exercise high)

imbalances:

• too much- mood swings

• too little- chronic pain (opiods)

Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine (ACH)

• muscle control- communicates between neurons & muscles

• influences memory, arousal, and attention

imbalances

• too much- muscle spasms

• too little- muscle weakness and memory issues (linked to Alzhiemers)

Neurotransmitter: Substance P

• Transmits pain signals to brain

• Related to inflammation and immune response 

• Imbalances

  • Too much - chronic pain

  • Too little - impaired healing 

Hormone: Adrenaline

Function:

Heightened senses/alertness

“Fight or Flight”

Release is slower than norepinephrine

Effects are longer and allows body to maintain “fight or flight” levels

Hormone: Ghrelin

• Hunger hormone

• Stimulates appetite

• Produced in stomach 

• Levels rise before eating & decrease after eating

Hormone: Leptin

• Appetite suppressant 

• Signals the body that we have enough stored energy (fat)

Hormone: Melatonin

Regulates sleep and wake cycles (circadian rhythm)

• Promotes sleep

• Production is influenced by lightness(daytime) and darkness (night time)

Hormone: Oxytocin

“Love” Hormone

Social bonding and emotional attachment

Key roles in:

Mother /infant relationship

Romantic attachment

Social interactions

Neuroactive Substances

Chemicals that affect the nervous system and the way it communicates

Classified as agonists, antagonists, and reuptake inhibitors

Agonist

ncrease/enhance a neurotransmitter’s message

They can mimic (copy) a neurotransmitter by fitting into their receptor site

Example: Albuterol (treats asthma/mimics norepinephrine)

Antagonist

Inhibit (stop) or block a neurotransmitter’s message from moving through the nervous system

Example: Too much dopamine is associated with schizophrenia→ antagonists for dopamine used to stop symptoms

Reuptake Inhibitor

Enter the synapse and stop the process of reuptake

Leaving more neurotransmitters in the synapse to continue sending a particular message

Example: Prozac (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor)

Psychoactive Substances

A type of neuroactive substance

changes consciousness, mood, perception, thinking, or behavior

stimulants, depressants, opioids, & hallucinogens

Stimulants

Excite the nervous system

Speed the body’s function (breathing, heart rate, energy, etc)

Can boost mood, alertness, etc.

Can be highly addictive

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine

Depressants

Slow and reduce neural activity in the brain and body

Examples:

Alcohol

barbiturates, (sedatives/tranquilizers)

Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety meds like Xanax/Valium)

Opioids

Mimic endorphins → pain relief

Slow brain/body (heart rate, breathing, lethargy)

Prescription painkillers: methadone, Vicodin, Oxycontin, Fentanyl

Recreational/illegal: heroin

Addiction risks: cravings, tolerance, overdose, withdrawal

Brain stops making natural pain killer chemical/hormones

Hallucinogens

Distort perceptions (hallucinations)

Synthetic: LSD | Natural: THC, psilocybin, mescaline

Marijuana = hallucinogen → THC is active ingredient

Effects: relaxation, mood boost, sensory distortion

Risks: sensory overload, paranoia, agitation

Medicinal use: nausea, pain relief

Impair memory, learning; ↑ risk of accidents & psychosis

Marijuana = mild hallucinogen vs. LSD (depending on dosage)

Addiction

Refers to a compulsive drive to either do a behavior or to consume a substance.

It can be psychological or physiological, or BOTH.

Tolerance

Continued use leads to diminished effects

Requires the user to consume more to experience the same effects.

Withdrawal

Physical discomfort or distress that occurs when the user stops the substance

Variety of severity levels & lengths of time