Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Q&A)

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering the symptoms, mechanisms, pathology, and treatments of Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, Major Depressive Disorder, Multiple Sclerosis, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Which specific group of neurons degenerates in Parkinson's disease?

Dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra.

What compound that converts into dopamine in the brain is used to attenuate the symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

Levodopa.

Which chemical agent is used in animal models to deplete dopamine and produce Parkinson's-like deficits?

$6\text{-hydroxydopamine}$ ($6\text{-OHDA}$) lesions.

What behavioral feature are researchers tracking in animal models as a potential early marker of Parkinson's disease before classic motor deficits appear?

Changes in vocalizations.

What percentage of dementia cases are accounted for by Alzheimer's disease?

$60\%$ to $80\%$ of dementia cases.

What are the two hallmark protein abnormalities found in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease, and where do they accumulate?

Beta-amyloid plaques (deposits of protein fragments that accumulate in the spaces between nerve cells) and tau tangles (twisted fibers inside cells that disrupt nutrient transport along microtubules).

Based on this diagram of Alzheimer's disease progression, how far in advance of clinical diagnosis can the earliest brain changes begin?

Changes may begin $20\text{ years}$ or more before diagnosis.

How does risk of developing Alzheimer's disease change with age after $65$?

The risk doubles approximately every $5\text{ years}$ after age $65$.

What is the distinction between risk genes and deterministic genes in Alzheimer's disease?

Risk genes (such as APOE-e4) increase the likelihood of developing the disease but do not guarantee it. Deterministic genes (such as APP and PS-1) directly cause familial or autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for less than $5\%$ of cases.

What is the lifetime risk of developing Alzheimer's disease at age $45$ for women compared to men?

$1\text{ in }5$ for women and $1\text{ in }10$ for men.

Between 2000 and 2024, how did the mortality trend of Alzheimer's disease compare to that of heart disease?

Deaths from heart disease decreased by $3.8\%$, while deaths from Alzheimer's disease increased by over $134\%$.

What are the four core components included in the U.S. POINTER Brain Health Recipe?

Physical exercise, health monitoring, nutrition (adherence to the MIND diet), and cognitive exercise.

What are the core emotional and behavioral symptoms that characterize Major Depressive Disorder?

Persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, tearfulness, or hopelessness, along with a loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities.

What three primary classes of medications are commonly prescribed to treat Major Depressive Disorder by preventing neurotransmitter reuptake or breakdown?

SSRIs, SNRIs, and MAOIs.

What two sequential pathological phases characterize the progression of Multiple Sclerosis?

An inflammatory phase (where inflammation drives myelin loss) followed by a neurodegenerative phase (chronic axonal degeneration and gliosis).

How does the demyelination in Multiple Sclerosis disrupt central nervous system function?

The loss of myelin insulation causes a reorganization of ion channels, leading to abnormal electrical conduction.

What three factors are considered potential causes or contributors to Multiple Sclerosis?

Immune-mediated inflammatory disease, genetic susceptibility, and Vitamin D deficiency.

How does the monoclonal antibody immunotherapy for Multiple Sclerosis operate?

It targets the VLA-4 adhesion molecule to block damaging immune cells from moving from the bloodstream into the brain and spinal cord.

What diagnostic triad characterizes Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

Impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behavior, and restricted interests.

What does scientific evidence conclude regarding the relationship between Autism Spectrum Disorder and childhood vaccines or Tylenol?

There is no link between vaccines and ASD, and Tylenol does not increase ASD risk.

According to the 2025 study published in Obstetrics & Gynecology, which conditions of maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection were most strongly associated with neurodevelopmental diagnoses by age 3?

Third-trimester exposure and male offspring.

Which two monoamine pathways projecting to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) show suspected hypoactivity in ADHD, as illustrated in this diagram?

Dopamine (originating in the ventral tegmental area, VTA) and norepinephrine (originating in the locus ceruleus).

What biological effect of testosterone has been observed in animal models of ADHD?

Testosterone may delay the maturation of dopaminergic and norepinephrine (catecholamine) pathways critical for attention and reward.

What is the most common pharmacological category of medication used to manage ADHD, and what is its primary effect?

Stimulant medications, which boost and balance levels of neurotransmitters to improve inattention and hyperactivity.