APGOPO | Unit 2 - Short & Sweet

Core American values

Individualism, equality of opportunity, free enterprise, rule of law, and limited government. Widespread questioning of the government’s legitimacy is NOT part of American political culture.

Political socialization

The experiences and factors that shape an individual’s political values, attitudes, and behaviors.

Agents of political socialization

Family, schools, peers, religion, the media, and the social environment. The family has its greatest effect on a person’s party identification.

Lifecycle effect

Political attitudes change as a person moves through stages of life (for example, starting a career, owning a home, or retiring). Compare: generational effect.

Generational effect

The impact of historical events experienced by a generation on its political views. It persists as that generation ages.

Political events and ideology

Major events (wars, economic crises, attacks like 9/11) can produce sharp shifts in attitudes, such as trust in government, that often fade over time.

Liberalism

An ideology favoring less government control over social behavior and more regulation of businesses and the economy. Associated with the Democratic Party. Economically: more regulation, a higher minimum wage, and more social programs.

Conservatism

An ideology favoring more control of social behavior, fewer regulations on businesses, and less government intervention in the economy. Associated with the Republican Party. Economically: lower taxes, less regulation, and reliance on private investment.

Libertarianism

An ideology favoring very little government regulation or intervention, in either the economy or social life, beyond protecting private property and individual liberty.

Ideology and policymaking

Public policy tends to reflect the attitudes and beliefs of the citizens who participate in politics, so elected officials respond most to groups that vote at high rates.

School vouchers (school choice)

Public funds families can use for private school tuition. Supporters (usually conservative) cite choice and competition; opponents (usually liberal) say they drain public schools. Reflects the divide over government’s role in providing social services.

Scientific poll

A poll of randomly selected respondents with a large enough sample size, using neutral language, so the results represent the population.

Representative sample

A sample that reflects the demographics of the population being studied.

Sampling error (margin of error)

The range within which a poll’s results are likely to differ from the whole population’s true opinion (e.g., ±3 percentage points).

Weighting

Adjusting survey results so the sample matches the demographics of the larger population.

Tracking poll

A survey repeated over time to measure whether support for a candidate or issue is shifting during a campaign.

19th Amendment (1920)

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on sex, extending suffrage to women.

26th Amendment (1971)

Lowers the voting age to 18, adding 18- to 20-year-old voters.

Democratization

The expansion of political participation to more people over time (e.g., extending suffrage, primaries replacing party insiders).

National Voter Registration Act (1993)

The “Motor Voter” law. Requires states to let citizens register to vote when they apply for or renew a driver’s license.

Party identification

An individual’s attachment to a political party. The MOST important influence on how people vote in presidential elections.

Prospective voting

Voting based on what a candidate promises to do in the future.

Retrospective voting

Voting based on an assessment of an incumbent’s or party’s past performance.

Party-line voting

Voting for candidates of only one political party for every office on the ballot.

Demographics and voting

Older, more educated, and wealthier citizens vote at higher rates. Women, minority groups, urban, and Jewish voters lean Democratic; rural voters lean Republican.

Linkage institution

A channel that connects individuals with government: elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Political party

An organization that recruits, nominates, and supports candidates, mobilizes and educates voters, and organizes government to enact its policies.

Critical election

A major national election that signals a change in the balance of power between the two parties.

Realignment

When large groups of voters shift their allegiance from one party to another.

Primary election

An election in which voters choose a party’s nominee. Primaries give the public more direct involvement in choosing candidates.

Open primary

A primary in which all eligible voters may vote, regardless of party affiliation.

Closed primary

A primary in which only voters registered with that party may vote.

Front-loading

A state’s decision to move its primary or caucus as early as possible in the season to gain influence in the nomination process.

Third party

A minor political party competing with the two major parties. Rarely wins, but major parties often adopt its popular ideas to win its supporters.

Single-member district plurality system

An election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. The MAIN reason the U.S. has a two-party system.

Open-seat election

An election in which no incumbent (current officeholder) is running.

Modern campaigns

Compared with campaigns before 1960, campaigns today are longer, more expensive, more media focused, and run by professional consultants using data and social media.

Contributions vs. expenditures

Contributions = money given directly to a candidate; CAN be limited. Expenditures = money spent to communicate a political message; CANNOT be limited (Buckley, Citizens United).

Soft money

Unregulated money given to parties for “party-building” activities. BCRA banned soft money to national parties.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002

The McCain-Feingold law. Banned soft money to national parties, restricted issue ads close to elections, and created “stand by your ad.”

Express vs. issue advocacy

Express advocacy ads explicitly say to vote for or against a candidate (“magic words”). Issue advocacy ads discuss issues without saying how to vote.

Political action committee (PAC)

An organization that raises money to elect or defeat candidates and may give money directly to campaigns, subject to limits.

Super PAC

An organization that may raise and spend unlimited money on an election, as long as it does not give directly to or coordinate with a campaign.

527 group

A tax-exempt group (named for the tax code section) that raises unlimited money for issue advocacy and voter mobilization.

Outside (independent) spending

Spending by groups other than candidates and parties (PACs, super PACs, 527s). It rose dramatically after Citizens United (2010). Outside groups may NOT coordinate strategy with candidates. Candidate committees are not outside groups.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Upheld limits on contributions to candidates but struck down limits on campaign expenditures, because spending on political communication is speech.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Ruled that corporations and unions may spend unlimited amounts on independent political ads, because banning that spending is a ban on political speech. Limits on direct contributions remain.

Strict scrutiny

The toughest standard of judicial review. The government must prove a law serves a compelling interest and is narrowly tailored. Applied to laws that burden political speech.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

The federal agency that regulates the nation’s broadcasters (radio, TV, and communications).

Agenda setting

The media’s ability to highlight certain issues and bring them to the public’s attention. It shapes WHAT issues people think are important.

Horse-race journalism

Campaign coverage that focuses on polls, strategy, and who is winning rather than on policy issues. The largest share of campaign coverage.

Watchdog role

The media’s role in monitoring government and exposing abuses of power, often through investigative journalism.

Ideologically oriented media

News outlets aimed at audiences with a particular viewpoint. Lets people consume news that reinforces the beliefs they already hold.