Roman Art + Architecture, Aeneid

Purpose of Prima Porta

Political messaging:

The main purpose of the Prima Porta was to glorify Augustus and highlight his achievements (political and military).

His most significant achievement was his ability to regain the lost standards from the Parthians.

Historical context of Prima Porta

Caesar/Augustus

- Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE, and he named Octavius as his heir.

- Augustus (previously called Octavius) received the title of Augustus, meaning 'revered one', after the defeat of Marc Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31BCE. This ended the civil war that had existed between them.

- In 22 BCE - 19BCE, Augustus retrieved the lost Standards from the Parthians without fighting them. This was a huge political victory for Augustus and is considered one of his greatest achievements.

Historical context of Prima Porta: Classical influence

Doryphoros was one of Polykleitos's sculptures. Created during the Greek Golden Age, a period of peace and advancement. Doryphoros was an athlete who was considered the perfect male form.

The Doryphoros would have been known to the Romans, so the similarities between the two would have been evident to them (defined musculature, the pose, etc).

Similarities can be seen through the idealised rule of proportions, perfect symmetry, balance of opposites and the technique of Contrapposto (having a figure shift its weight to one foot.

The key idea of making a connection to the Doryphoros was that Augustus wanted to remind people of the Greek Golden Age, which was filled with peace and prosperity. He did this to imply that under his rule the same would occur.

Stylistic Features/Subject Matter of Prima Porta

Pose

Facial features

Drapery

Other

Subject matter: Literally what you see, Augustus.

Stylistic Features:

Pose: (POLITICAL CONTEXT)

- Raised right arm contrasts with the left

- Right arm raised in a rhetoric/adlocutio pose (Leader of authority)

- Youthful and athletic physique

- Almost full frontal pose

- Left arm bent at the elbow

- Holds a consular baton in his left hand

- Contrapposto pose: Left leg bent, all weight put toward the right leg, adds realism to the sculpture as the shoulders and hips drop

Facial features:

- Idealised, youthful despite being older at the time

- Calm, serious, focused expression (dignified)

- Hair swept over head (signature look)

- His hair is similar to Caesar, A. intended to draw on these fond memories that people had for Caesar

- Head tilted to the right

Drapery:

- Rich and voluminous

- The folds curve around his belly in a natural way and drape over his arm in rich folds that end in zigzags

- Wears a breastplate/Currass

- Has bare feet (POLITICAL CONTEXT)

- Cupid riding a dolphin (connection to the gods)

Analysis of key symbols in Prima Porta (relating to CONTEXT)

1. Cupid/dolphin

2. Bare feet

3. Cloak and Baton

1.

- At A. right foot is the god Cupid riding a dolphin

- The inclusion of both these symbols would have (for the Ancient Roman viewer) clearly linked Augustus to the goddess Venus

- Venus once had a mortal son, Aeneas, whose descendants, Romulus and Remus, were the founders of Rome. Augustus claimed that he was a descendant of these twins, thereby making him a direct descendant of Venus as well

- He does this to make him 'greater' than other Romans, therefore making him fit to rule Rome, also helped legitimise his rule

- The dolphin symbolises his great victory over Marc Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31BCE. This is because this was a naval (sea) battle

- They were the last major threat to Augustus's plan, ending the civil war that had been going on for years

- Because of this battle, peace was restored to Rome

2.

- This is a characteristic of Classical sculpture

- Could be interpreted as a symbol for Augustus's divine status and reinforce his ancestry alongside Cupid/dolphin

3.

- The cloak is draped around A. lower body; it is a ceremonial general's cloak. This would have o.g been purple to highlight the imperial colour

- This serves as a reminder to the viewer of A. military position and successes, that he was capable of defending and leading Rome

- In his left hand are the remains of what was the Consular baton. The consul was the most powerful political position in Rome during the Republic. They were elected and held the position for a year before new elections were held

- Very significant inclusion as it was a Republican symbol and highlights to the viewer that A. had been elected as Consul and leader

- Supports the idea that he is merely stepping into a position that already existed (Emperor)

Symbolism/Purpose/Messages of the Cuirass (Breastplate) of Prima Porta

Sphinx

Gods at top

Roman and Parthian in centre

Sphinx (each shoulder strap):

- Tricky and wise creature; implies that A. too is wise

- Mythological creature

- SYMBOLISES A. defeat of Cleopatra and Marc Antony in the Battle of Actium, as the Sphinx is associated with Egypt

Gods at top:

The sun god Sol (top section)

The goddess of Dawn, Aurora (top section)

The sky god Caelus (Middle top section)

MYTHOLOGICAL/POLITICAL CONTEXT

- All associated with the sky

PURPOSE:

- Conveys the idea that these deities are supportive of A. and his actions

- Through A. actions, light and prosperity will spread through the Empire (message for Romans and the Empire)

- Literally watch over successes happening below

Roman and Parthian in centre:

- Parthian man holding a Roman Standard (in 'barbaric' clothes, tunic and trousers)

- Roman soldier with hand held out with dog

- This is a scene depicting the return of the Roman Standards by the Parthians (o.g lost at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE)

- Central positioning of the scene highlights its importance of it, highlight of A. career

- The standards were returned to Rome through diplomatic negotiation

- The peaceful negotiation added to A. great image, as Romans were tired of war and honour was restored to Rome through the return of the Standards

Symbolism/Purpose/Messages of the Cuirass (Breastplate) of Prima Porta

Bottom Half

Personification of Spain and Gaul

Apollo/Diana

Inclusion of all gods

Earth goddess Tellus

Personification of Spain and Gaul:

- To the far left and right of the breastplate

- Personifications are symbolic of A. pacifying these nations who had caused uncertainty + broke peace by rebelling against Roman rule

Apollo riding a griffin + Diana riding a stag:

- Far left and right at bottom

- Inclusion of gods again showcases the divine support A. has

- A. directly credited these two gods with military victories that helped him secure control over Rome

INCLUSION OF ALL GODS:

- Traditional gods

- Important symbol for the Republicans, who were unsettled at the thought of too much change from traditional values of Rome

- Many new religions entering Rome, many feared that A. would change official religion of Rome to one of these new, modern religions

- By showing that he was still honouring traditional gods, as done for centuries, enhanced support he received from Republicans

Earth goddess Tellus holding a cornucopia and 2 babies:

- Chubby babies and cornucopia (horn of plenty)

- Ideas associated with these symbols are prosperity, plenty for all Romans, also ideas around fertility

Analysis of context

1. Military standards (Political)

2. Civil war (Political/Social/Historical)

3. Republic v.s Empire (Political)

1.

- Depicted in the centre of the Cuirass is the return of the lost standards

- The Romans were famed for their military power. Their strength in battle evident from the number of nations they conquered

- To manage such a large number of men, legions were created. Legions were smaller groupings made up of 5000 men. Each legion was given a title and a standard

- The standard was the visual representation of each Legion and the Romans followed these standards into battle. These standards were hugely important to each Legion

- To lose the standard was a sign of dishonour and shame, as it meant that the Romans had been defeated

2.

- Rome had been caught up in civil war for nearly 50 years by the time A. assumed power. The Romans were tired of civil war. Civil war represented instability and internal division that ultimately undermined the power of Rome

- A. had been in a civil war against Marc Antony and Cleopatra. Antony and A. had divided the empire between them, but this did not last. Both wanted total power, and it led to an all-out war

- In 31BCE was the decisive Battle of Actium, where a naval battle between the two resulted in the defeat of Marc Antony and Cleopatra

3.

- A. was attempting what had been tried before, to overturn and establish a monarchy-style rule over Rome. Previous attempts resulted in murder and political turmoil

- Republicans were cautious of one man having so much power

- They were uneasy about the changes in society A. could maybe make

Colosseum Fact File

Construction

Capacity

Purpose

Materials

Construction: 70-82CE

Capacity: 50,000-80,000 spectators

Purpose:

Public spectacles

- Gladiator combat

- Beast hunts

- Naval battles

- Executions

Materials:

- Travertine limestone

- Tufa

- Brick

- Concrete

- Wood

What must I be confident in for external

Form:

- Must be able to discuss the different features in detail

Function:

Entertainment:

Form/aspects that supports the function:

- Visibility, movement of traffic, access to gladiators, props, suprise elements, size (so many people can be entertained), protection from elements

Intended purpose:

Political: Giving back to the people, promoting glory/wealth/power of Roman empire through technological advances, size, design of building

Social: Separating the different classes

Aesthetic: To create visual. pleasing building

Historical context of the Colosseum

- The Colosseum was not the first amphitheatre or the last

- Amphitheatres were widespread throughout the Roman Empire, but the Colosseum was the biggest

- Unlike earlier amphitheatres, which were nearly all dug into the ground for extra support, the Colosseum is a free-standing structure of stone and concrete

- Started construction under Vespasian and was completed by his sons Titus and Domitian

- Construction began around 70-72CE

- The Colosseum was not simply an entertainment venue; it was a political, social, and symbolic monument designed to restore public trust, reinforce imperial authority, etc.

- The Colosseum was built in the aftermath of a period of severe instability. In 68-69CE, Rome experienced the "Year of the Four Emperors." A civil war that followed the death of the unpopular emperor Nero

- Nero was a ruler who prioritised personal luxury over public welfare

- When Vespasian became emperor in 69CE, he had to legitimise his rule. Vespasian's building programme, of which the Colosseum was the centrepiece, was deliberately designed to contrast with Nero's reign

- Nero had the construction of the Domus Aurea, a vast private palace complex. Vespasian decided to replace part of this private estate with the Colosseum, presenting himself as a ruler who governed in the interests of the Roman people rather than personal luxury. The Colosseum was deliberately built on the site of Nero's artificial lake, part of this private palace complex

- Titus inherited the throne in 80CE, introducing the Colosseum with an elaborate series of public games that lasted aprox. 100 days. This was to emphasise imperial generosity.

Historical context of the Colosseum

After Titus

- The scale of these events reinforced the message that the Flavian dynasty had restored prosperity + stability after years of conflict

- Domitian completed the Colosseum's final architectural and functional form. He is responsible for: The hypogeum, the upper seating tiers

Function/Purpose of the Colosseum

- Legitimise Vespasian's right to rule and the relationship between the Roman people and the Emperor

- Spectacles held here reflected the power and wealth of the empire

- Also social control for the Roman population

- Entertainment and public spectacle

Design layout - Exterior of Colosseum

Elliptical shape

Entrance/Exits

Tickets

Levels

Elliptical shape:

- Made up of 4 rings

F/P:

- Everyone had an excellent view of the arena

Entrance/Exits:

- 80 entrances/exits

- 76 of the entraces/exits were public ones

- 4 were used by the Emperor/family/friends

F/P:

- Enables easy access to seats

- Enables efficient exiting as people could be cleared out within 15m

Tickets:

- Were free but you had to get a ticket

- Wooden tickets had a number on it showing your entrance and seat number

- A number was engraved above each arch which corresponded with the wooden tickets

Levels:

- The Colosseum has 4 levels

- There were decorative arches on levels 1-3

- Levels 2-3 had statues that stood in the arches

LEVEL 4 - TOP LEVEL:

- Corinthian pilasters (square columns)

- Square openings

- Blank spaces would have held bronze shields

LEVEL 3:

- Corinthian columns

LEVEL 2:

- Ionic columns

LEVEL 1 - BOTTOM LEVEL:

- Doric columns

F/P:

- Emphasises height and provides contrast with the curves (aesthetic), entirely decorative

Exterior of the Colosseum

1. Materials/Archs

2. Velarium

1.

- Specific materials and structural engineering were necessary to overcome both the height and weight of the Colosseum

- Had to support the weight of the structure and the spectators

F/P:

Travertine: Strong, easy to cut, resistant to water

Concrete: Adds to the strength of the arch; the chemical composition of Roman concrete makes it highly durable

Arch/Barrel Vault/Groin Vault:

- Transfers the weight down through the piers and outward to create compressive stress in the arch

- Extensive use of arches/vaults enabled the lightening and spreading of the strain

2. Velarium (awning)

- An awning to protect viewers from the weather

- There were 240 masts (poles used to support/suspend the Velarium) on which the canvas sails were attached

- The Velarium was raised at the beginning of the games by 1,000 handsome sailors, intended to entertain and excite the crowds

- Covered 2/3 of the seating, leaving a hole in the centre

F/P:

- Keeping people comfortable while they were being entertained (protected from the weather)

- Entertainment through the sailors

Interior of the Colosseum

Cavea

Arena

Hypogeum

Cavea:

- The tiered, semicircular seating area

- Separated the patricians (noblemen) from the plebeians

(common people). Also separated men and women

- There were 5m walls to separate classes of seating

- The VOMITORIA were entrances/exits (corridors under the seating)

The interior - Ground level

Arena (stage):

- The floor was made of wood to allow for trap doors and covered with sand to absorb the blood

Hypogeum (underground):

- The area under the arena floor. It had tiny rooms for the gladiators, the animals, and for storage

- Hidden trap doors and elevators allowed entry to the arena floor at different points

- The hypogeum consisted of 2 stories

- Vertical shafts had lifts for animals to be transported to the main stage

Roman Society and how the Cavea reflects this

- Roman society was very unequal, and this is shown in the seating at the Colosseum

- In around 20BC, Augustus introduced a law called the Lex Iulia Theatralis, which specified where people would sit in public places like theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, etc.

- These rules were enforced all over the Empire

- Augustus also banned women from public spectacles, although this was relaxed when the Colosseum was built

HOW CAVEA REFLECTS THIS:

- The seating separated the patricians (noblemen) from the plebeians (common people), also men and women

4th Level (Top):

- Wooden seats for plebeian women, with standing room for poor men and slaves

3rd Level:

- Travertine seating for ordinary citizens/plebians, no women

2nd Level:

- Marble seating for upper-class people (patricians)

1st Level (Bottom):

- Imperial family, senators, and their families

- Had luxurious cushions or their own seating to sit on

- The emperor had his own imperial box at this level

- Senators' full names were written on their seats

How to link Leadership/Identity/Ideology

Leadership:

- Aeneas's leadership and how he can be a good/bad leader in certain situations

TIE IN WITH IDEOLOGY

Good leader: Pietas, Roman hero

Bad leader: Furore, Homeric hero

TIE IN WITH IDENTITY:

- How his leadership and therefore identity of certain ideologies changes throughout the book

How I will structure the essay:

- Answer question + extent in intro

- Have 3 main points with 1-2 quotes as example/evidence for each point

- Each point should focus on a certain book

- Each point should be structured like this: topic sentence, 2 examples/evidence explained, summary

Definition

Roman hero/Pietas

Homeric hero/Furore

Roman hero: Has a strict code of personal honour, is very courageous, is loyal primarily to their people/nation, aims to serve the interests of others, looks towards the future.

Pietas: Deep respect and duty toward the gods, family, and the Roman state. Often without thought of self, acting responsibly for the good of others.

Homeric hero: Has a strict code of personal honour; is very courageous, is loyal primarily to themselves, aims to die 'gloriously' in battle.

Furore: Fury or violence, irrational passion, acting out of anger or out of impulsive self-interest, without thinking.

Introduction

What points to discuss

To a large extent, Aeneas develops into an effective Roman leader, but his leadership is repeatedly challenged by his tendency towards furore and Homeric hero qualities

Book 1: Leadership is developing

Book 2: Leadership is challenged

Book 4: Leadership requires sacrifice

Point 1 - Book 1: Leadership is developing

Context

Topic sentence

Example/evidence #1

Context:

- The Aeneid starts in the middle of the story, 7 years after the fall of Troy

- Aeneas and his men set out for Italy

- Juno bribes Aeolus to cause a deadly storm

- Aeneas thinks he will be drowned, but is saved by Neptune, who calms the storm

- Venus confronts Jupiter about Aeneas's suffering, and Jupiter reassures her through his prophecy

- After the storm, Aeneas and his men land on the coast of Africa

- Venus appears to Aeneas and has a thick mist of protection for both of them as they go into Carthage, where Aeneas meets Dido

- Dido offers him generous hospitality

- Venus, suspicious of this, gets Cupid to disguise himself as Aeneas's son Ascanius, so he can get close to Dido and cause her to fall in love with Aeneas

Topic sentence:

In Book 1, Virgil presents Aeneas as an increasingly effective leader because, despite experiencing fear and despair himself, he demonstrates Pietas and Roman hero qualities by prioritising his men over himself.

Example/evidence #1: Aeneas wishes he had died at Troy

- During Juno's storm, Aeneas is terrified and wishes that he had died gloriously during the Trojan War

Quote: "... whose luck it was to die under the high walls of Troy ..."

LEADERSHIP - This reveals a weakness in Aeneas's leadership. Rather than immediately thinking about the survival of his people, his thoughts turn backward-looking, to Troy and the heroic death of the warriors.

IDEOLOGY - This connects strongly to the Homeric hero. A Homeric hero values personal honour, seeks glory, and sees death in battle as glorious. Aeneas's desire to have died in Troy therefore shows he has some Homeric hero traits.

IDENTITY - Aeneas has not yet become the 100% forward-looking Roman hero.

Point 1 - Book 1: Leadership is developing

Example/evidence #2

Example/evidence #2: Aeneas encourages his men

- After the storm, he and his men land in Africa. He then gives a speech to his men

Quote: "Friends of mine, we have long been no strangers to affliction, and you have had worse than this to bear."

IDEOLOGY - Aeneas hides his own fear and encourages his men. This demonstrates Pietas because he prioritises the wellbeing of his people.

LEADERSHIP - After landing, he also actively scouts the area, searches for survivors, and provides food for his men, demonstrating great leadership.

IDENTITY - This reflects the ideal Roman leader, who serves their people.

Point 2 - Book 2: Leadership is challenged

Context

Topic sentence

Example/evidence #1

Context:

- It is the chronological first event in the Aeneid

- The Horse is left on the beach. The Greeks have sailed to hide behind a neighbouring island

- Laocoon doubts the gift, but Sinon and the death of Laocoon ultimately convince the Trojans to bring the Horse into the Walls

- The Trojans celebrate, and when they have all fallen asleep, the Greeks return and attack

- Aeneas is visited in a dream by Hector, warning him to flee and find refuge in a new city. Aeneas does not understand his destiny and fights

- Aeneas recounts the bloody battle within the walls of Troy. He describes the deaths of Priam and his Son. He is convinced to flee by Venus

- He must convince his father to flee. This is encouraged by an omen from the gods. Aeneas leaves with his father, son and wife Creusa

- Aeneas flees through the city, again recounting the carnage. He loses Creusa on the way. When he goes back to find her, Aeneas encounters her ghost, and she tells him of his destiny

Topic sentence:

In Book 2, Aeneas's leadership is challenged, and some flaws are revealed as the fall of Troy causes his furore to overwhelm his sense of duty, driving him to pursue a great death in battle like a Homeric hero rather than prioritising the survival of his people as an ideal Roman leader.

Example/evidence #1: Aeneas goes and gets ready to fight

Quote: "Out of my senses, I grasped my arms; not that I had any plan for battle, but simply a burning desire to muster a band for fighting ..."

Point 2 - Book 2: Leadership is challenged

Example/evidence #1 - EXPLAIN

Example/evidence #2

LEADERSHIP - Aeneas shows poor leadership because he acts without thinking about what is best for his own people. Instead of leading the Trojans to safety, he acts on impulse and risks his own life and the survival of his people.

IDEOLOGY - Aeneas's desire to fight shows that he is following Homeric hero values rather than acting with pietas, as he prioritises himself and his irrational emotions rather than acting responsibly and for the good of his people.

IDENTITY - His identity is torn between Homeric qualities and Roman hero qualities through the challenge of the fall of Troy.

Example/evidence #2: Aeneas goes and gets ready to fight

Quote: "Frantic in my fury I had no time for decisions; I only remembered that death in battle is glorious."

LEADERSHIP - Aeneas shows poor leadership as his focus on the idea that death in battle is glorious means he is willing to risk his life instead of leading the Trojans away from danger.

IDEOLOGY - Aeneas here shows Homeric hero qualities as he is focused on fighting and gaining honour for himself, rather than following the Roman ideal of pietas.

IDENTITY - His identity is torn between Homeric qualities and Roman hero qualities through the fall of Troy.

Point 3 - Book 4: Leadership requires sacrifice

Context

Topic sentence

Example/evidence #1

Context:

- The story picks up from the end of Book 1. It follows the tragic downfall of Dido due to the love affair with Aeneas

- Juno and Venus team up to push the two together. Juno wants to trap Aeneas in Carthage, while Venus just wants to keep her son safe

- At first, Dido falls deeply in love with Aeneas. She confesses this to her sister Anna. This breaks her sacred vow to never love again after her first husband's death

- A sudden storm forces Dido and Aeneas into a cave during a hunt. They sleep together, and Dido considers them married, though Aeneas does not

- Rumour of their affair spread, angering local kings. Jupiter sends Mercury to Carthage, and Mercury tells Aeneas to leave and fulfil his destiny in Italy

- Dido finds out Aeneas is secretly packing his ships and begs him to stay. Aeneas refuses, choosing his divine duty over his feelings

- Dido decides to end her life

Topic sentence:

By Book 4, Aeneas demonstrates significant growth as a Roman leader; he ultimately chooses Pietas over personal desire, sacrificing his relationship with Dido in order to fulfil his responsibility to his people and future nation.

Example/evidence #1: Mercury's intervention

Quote: "You forget your destiny and that other kingdom which is to be yours ... at least think of Ascanius ... destined to rule in an Italy ..."

LEADERSHIP - Mercury's reminder marks a significant development in Aeneas's leadership, as he now understands that fulfilling his leadership requires personal sacrifice.

IDEOLOGY - Virgil uses Aeneas's sacrifice to establish that Roman leadership is defined by Pietas, where duty towards others outweighs individual happiness.

IDENTITY - This sacrifice completes Aeneas' development into the Roman hero. His identity is now defined by his responsibility to family, his people, and his destiny.

Point 3 - Book 4: Leadership requires sacrifice

Example/evidence #2

Example/evidence #2: Aeneas's emotional conflict

Quote: "So he would try to find the right approach and the least painful moment to speak, and discover a tactful way out of their predicament."

LEADERSHIP - Aeneas's hesitation reveals that his decision to leave Dido is not easy, making his eventual choice a genuine sacrifice. He ultimately recognises that leadership requires him to endure personal suffering in order to fulfil his responsibility to his people.

IDEOLOGY - The contrast between Aeneas's emotional attachment and his obligation to leave reinforces Pietas. He must control his emotions and accept the suffering that comes with serving a greater purpose.

IDENTITY - Aeneas's emotional conflict makes his development into a Roman hero even more significant because he does not lack human emotion; he suppresses it for the sake of duty.

Point 1 - Book 1 QUOTES

Quote: "... whose luck it was to die under the high walls of Troy ..."

Quote: "Friends of mine, we have long been no strangers to affliction, and you have had worse than this to bear."

Point 2 - Book 2 QUOTES

Quote: "Out of my senses, I grasped my arms; not that I had any plan for battle, but simply a burning desire to muster a band for fighting ..."

Quote: "Frantic in my fury, I had no time for decisions; I only remembered that death in battle is glorious."

Point 3 - Book 4 QUOTES

Quote: "You forget your destiny and that other kingdom which is to be yours ... at least think of Ascanius ... destined to rule in an Italy ..."

Quote: "So he would try to find the right approach and the least painful moment to speak, and discover a tactful way out of their predicament."