PSYC3490 Adult Development and Aging

Gerontology

the study of aging and older adults. (biological, psychological, social)

lifespan development

Development continues throughout the entire lifespan.

plasticity

people can still change, adapt, and develop throughout life

multidirectionality

Development does not move in only one direction. (a person can improve in one area and decline in the other. ex: an older adult may be better at emotional regulation and decline in reaction speed)

multiple causality

Development is affected by many factors working together, rather than one single cause. (biology, environment, lifestyle, culture, social experiments)

normative age graded inflluences

Events commonly associated with a certain age or stage of life. (ex: puberty, retirement, menopause)

normative history graded influences

Major historical events that affect many people from the same generation. (war, economic depression, pandemic)

non normative influences

Unusual events that happen to a particular individual and are not tied to age or generation. (ex: major accidents, winning the lottery, personal loss)

chronological age

how many years someone has been alive for (70 years old)

psychological age

how old someone feels mentally/emotionally (is 70 but feels 50)

social age

society’s expectation on how a person should behave when they are a certain age (ex: people assuming that someone should retire because they are older)

functional age

how well someone actually functions in everyday life (ex: cooking, grocery shopping, driving, managing money, manages medication)

primary aging

normal biological changes that happen naturally with age (ex: grey hair, wrinkles, thin skin)

secondary aging

changes caused by diseases, lifestyle and the environment (ex: lung cancer from decades of smoking)

tertiary aging

rapid decline that occurs near the end of life

programmed theory

Aging follows a biological/genetic program.

cellular theory

Cells have biological limits and age-related changes.

error theory

Damage and biological mistakes accumulate over time.

organismic theory

People are active participants in their own development.

People do not simply passively experience development.

ageism

stereotypes or discrimination based on age

age effect

A difference caused by aging itself. (ex: reaction speed slower because of age)

cohort effect

Differences caused by belonging to different generations.

Different generations may have different:

• education

• technology exposure

• historical experiences

• social norms

time of measurement effect

Something happening during the period when the research is being conducted affects participants (ex: major economic crisis during testing)

cross sectional desgin

Compare different age groups at one point in time. (comparing 30,40,50 year olds in 2026)

longitudinal design

Follow the same group of people over time. (compare a group of people when they are 30,40,50)

sequential design

combines cross sectional and longitudinal design (research studies multiple age groups over multiple periods of time)

attrition

participants drop out of a study

selective attrition

certain types of participants are more likely to drop out. (ex: participants in poor health leave a long term study more often healthier participants)

presbyopia

Difficulty focusing on nearby objects because the lens becomes less flexible.

(Example: Holding a menu farther away to read it.)

cataract (eyes)

clouding of lens (symptoms = hazy vision, foggy vision)

macular degeneration

Primarily affects central vision.

glaucoma

damage to the optic nerve (often associated with intraocular pressure)

dark adaptation

Older adults may take longer to adjust when moving: bright → dark

presbycusis (ear)

Gradual age-related hearing loss. often affects high frequency sounds first (ec: difficulty hearing birds chirp or high pitched voices)

sensory

Damage to cochlear hair cells.

neural

Damage to the auditory nerve.

metabolic

Problems with the inner ear’s:

• chemical environment

• blood supply

• energy support

mechanical

Problems with stiffness or movement of ear structures.

eperdermis

most outer layer. fights bacteria, prevents fluid loss produces pigmentation and vitamin D. becomes thinner with age

dermis

middle layer. provides strength, support blood and nerve supply, elasticity. aging = loses collagen and elastin reducing firmness and elasticity

hypodermis

most inner layer. insulates against cold temperatures, absorbs shock, store fat. aging = loses fat padding

cardiovascular changes

With age:

• blood vessels become stiffer

• aerobic capacity generally decreases

sleep changes

With aging:

• total sleep may decrease

• nighttime waking may increase

• REM sleep may decrease

smell and touch

With age:

• sense of smell may decrease

• touch sensitivity may decrease

immune system

Two major components:

• innate immunity

• adaptive immunity

type 1 diabetes

The body cannot produce enough insulin.

• autoimmune

• begins earlier in life

type 2 diabetes

The body does not use insulin properly.

Often associated with:

• age

• obesity

• inactivity

• genetics

• high blood pressure

muscle and nervous system

With age:

• muscle mass decreases

• brain size and some neural connections may decrease

health

Health is broader than simply being free from disease. It includes physical and psychological functioning and well-being.

acute illness

• develops quickly

• clear symptoms

• usually short-term

• may require urgent care

(ex: cold, influenza)

chronic illness

• develops more slowly

• lasts a long time

• may progress over time

• often requires ongoing management

arteriosclerosis

Thickening and hardening of artery walls.

coronary artery disease

Reduced blood flow through the coronary arteries to the heart muscle.

congestive heart failure

The heart may be:

• weak

• stiff

• structurally impaired

and cannot function as effectively as it should.

myocardial infarction

Another name for a heart attack.

Occurs when heart muscle begins to die because it is not receiving enough blood flow.

cardiac arrest

The heart suddenly stops beating.

Important distinction:

• Heart attack = blocked blood flow

• Cardiac arrest = heart stops beating

ischemic stroke

Caused by:

• clot

• blockage

Blood flow to part of the brain is stopped.

hemorrhagic stroke

Caused by:

• ruptured blood vessel

• bleeding in the brain

FAST stroke warning signs

F = Face drooping
A = Arm weakness
S = Speech difficulty
T = Time to act

cardiovascular risks MODIFIABLE

Can potentially be changed or managed.

Examples from your notes:

• smoking

• poor diet

• physical inactivity

• obesity

• alcohol consumption

• diabetes

cardiovascular risks NON MODIFIABLE

Cannot be changed.

Examples:

• age

• family history

• genetics

• ethnicity/race

chemotherapy

Uses drugs to kill cancer cells.

radiation therapy

Uses high-dose radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumours.

surgery

Physically removes cancerous tissue.

immunotherapy

Helps the immune system fight cancer.

hormone therapy

Slows or stops cancers that use hormones to grow.

Common examples:

• some breast cancers

• some prostate cancers

hyperthermia

Uses heat to damage and kill cancer cells.

photodynamic therapy

Uses a drug activated by light.

targeted therapy

Targets specific proteins involved in:

• cancer growth

• division

• spread

stem cell transplant

Restores stem cells that can form new blood cells after intensive treatment.

type 1 diabetes

• autoimmune

• often begins in childhood/adolescence

• body has trouble producing insulin

type 2 diabetes

Body has difficulty using insulin effectively.

Risk factors include:

• obesity

• inactivity

• age

• genetics

• hypertension

osteoarthritis

Protective cartilage at the ends of bones wears down.

rheumatoid arthritis

Chronic inflammatory disorder affecting joint lining.

insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep

nocturia

Waking during the night to urinate.

structural neuroimaging

Shows what the brain looks like. These images look like photographs

Examples:

• CT

• X-ray

• MRI

functional neuroimaging

Shows what the brain is doing.

Example: 

• fMRI

aging brain activation

Older adults may activate:

• more brain areas

• different brain areas

than younger adults while performing the same task.

bilateralization

Using both brain hemispheres for specific cognitive tasks. Typically seen in aging brains.

compensation

The brain's use of additional neural resources to maintain cognitive performance.

HAROLD

Older adults show more bilateral activation in the prefrontal cortex.

Meaning:
they may use both sides more.

CRUNCH

Older adults may:

• use more brain activation on easier tasks

• recruit more resources as tasks become harder

• eventually reach a limit

STAC-r

The aging brain can:

• reorganize

• recruit alternative neural pathways

• build compensatory support

cognitive reserve

People with similar amounts of brain pathology may function very differently.

Higher cognitive reserve may be related to:

• education

• complex work

• bilingualism

• social engagement

• physical/activity levels

white matter

Bundles of axons connecting grey-matter areas.

myelin

Insulates axons.

glial cells

Brain cells that support and protect neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

myelination

The process of coating neuronal axons with myelin, a fatty substance that protects neurons and improves signal conduction.

grey matter

Brain tissue, composed of neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated axons, involved in information processing.

dopamine (neurotransmitters)

Associated with:

• episodic memory

• working memory

serotonin

Associated with:

• cognitive decline

• dementia

acetylcholine

 Decrease is associated with:

• Alzheimer’s disease

sensory memory

Very brief storage of sensory information. Lasts only a very short time.

iconic memory

 A type of sensory memory for visual information that fades very rapidly.

echoic memory

A component of sensory memory that is specific to retaining auditory

information. 

tactile memory

Memory that is collected through feeling or touching something. It is also known as haptic memory.

working memory

Temporarily holds information while you use it.

Example:
Repeating a phone number while typing it.

working memory may decline with age because of:

• slower processing speed

• reduced processing resources

• difficulty ignoring irrelevant information

• task complexity

phonological loop

Words and sounds.