perspectives on social policyholders and sociology

Different sociological perspectives hold different views of the nature of the s____ and the social policy it produces.

As a result, each perspective tends to take a different view of the role of s____ in relation to s____ p____.

What are 5 major perspectives on policy and its relationship to sociology.

Different sociological perspectives hold different views of the nature of the state and the social policy it produces.

As a result, each perspective tends to take a different view of the role of sociology in relation to social policy.

The major perspectives on policy and its relationship to sociology are

1. Positivism and functionalism

2. Social democratic

3. Feminism

4. The New Right

Positivism and functionalism - Basic ideas

• Early positivists such as C_____ and D____ took the view that sociology was a s____ and would discover both the cause of s___ p____ and scientifically based s____ to them.

• As such, their approach was part of the E_____ project to use s___ and r____ to improve s____. For example, D____ analysis led him to propose a m____ e_____ s___ and the a____ of i____ w___ as ways to foster a sense that society was f____, which would promote s____ c_____.

• Functionalists see society as based on v____ c____ and free from fundamental c____. Like the positivists, they see the state as serving the i____ of society as a whole, producing and implementing r_____ social s____ for the good of all.

• These policies help society run more s____ and e___. For example, e______ policies are seen as promoting e____ o_____ and s____ integration, while health and housing policies assist the family in performing its functions more effectively.

Positivism and functionalism - Basic ideas

• Early positivists such as Comte and Durkheim took the view that sociology was a science and would discover both the cause of social problems and scientifically based solutions to them.

• As such, their approach was part of the Enlightenment project to use science and reason to improve society. For example, Durkheim's analysis led him to propose a meritocratic education system and the abolition of inherited wealth as ways to foster a sense that society was fair, which would promote social cohesion.

• Functionalists see society as based on value consensus and free from fundamental conflicts. Like the positivists, they see the state as serving the interests of society as a whole, producing and implementing rational social policies for the good of all.

• These policies help society run more smoothly and efficiently. For example, educational policies are seen as promoting equal opportunity and social integration, while health and housing policies assist the family in performing its functions more effectively.

Positivism and functionalism

• For both f____ and p___, the sociologist's role is to provide the state with o____, s____ information. By investigating social problems and discovering their causes, sociologists provide what?

• In this view, the sociologist is rather like the medical researcher. - what does this metaphor mean?

• This provides the state with o____ information about their e____ and e___ of their causes as well as possible ‘c___' in the shape of p___ r___.

Positivism and functionalism

• For both functionalists and positivists, the sociologist's role is to provide the state with objective, scientific information. By investigating social problems and discovering their causes, sociologists provide the necessary information on which the state can base its policies.

• In this view, the sociologist is rather like the medical researcher. Just as medical research discovers the causes of disease as a basis for prevention or cure, so the sociologist's role is to investigate social problems scientifically.

• This provides the state with objective information about their extent and explanations of their causes as well as possible ‘cures' in the shape of policy recommendations

Positivism and functionalism

• Functionalists favour social policies that are often referred to as “piecemeal social engineering,” meaning a c____, g____ approach to change.

• “Piecemeal” literally means what?, so rather than attempting to c____ t____ society all at once, Functionalists focus on t___ o___ s__ issue at a time, making small, m____ changes and assessing their e____ before moving on.

• This reflects their belief that society is a s____ s____, so change should be c____, c____, and incremental to avoid what?

Positivism and functionalism

• Functionalists favour social policies that are often referred to as “piecemeal social engineering,” meaning a cautious, gradual approach to change.

• “Piecemeal” literally means working piece by piece, so rather than attempting to completely transform society all at once, Functionalists focus on tackling one specific issue at a time, making small, manageable changes and assessing their effectiveness before moving on.

• This reflects their belief that society is a stable system, so change should be careful, controlled, and incremental to avoid disrupting social order.

Positivism and functionalism

〤- However, the piecemeal approach has been criticised.

• For example, Marxists argue that educational policies aimed at e____ o____ for children of different classes are often defeated by what?

• in other words, social problems such as underachievement are simply aspects of a w___ s___ of class inequality, and so we need to change the b___ s___ of society in order to solve these s___ problems.

Positivism and functionalism

〤- However, the piecemeal approach has been criticised.

• For example, Marxists argue that educational policies aimed at equalising opportunity for children of different classes are often defeated by the influence of poverty in wider society.

• in other words, social problems such as underachievement are simply aspects of a wider structure of class inequality, and so we need to change the basic structure of society in order to solve these specific problems.

The social democratic perspective

• The social democratic perspective on social policy shares this view of what?

• The social democratic perspective argues that sociologists should use e____ r____ to identify s____ p____ and a____ inform social policy, with the aim of what?

Key idea:

👉 Sociology = a tool for c____, not just o____

• It favours a major r_____ of w____ and i____ from the r___ to the p____.

• Sociologists adopting this perspective, such as T____ (1979), argue that they should be involved in r___ s___ p____ and making p____ r____ to e____ them.

• e_____ and w____

The social democratic perspective

• The social democratic perspective on social policy shares this view of changing the basic structure of society in order to solve these specific problems.

• The social democratic perspective argues that sociologists should use empirical research to identify social problems and actively inform social policy, with the aim of reducing inequality through state intervention

Key idea:

👉 Sociology = a tool for change, not just observation

• It favours a major redistribution of wealth and income from the rich to the poor.

• Sociologists adopting this perspective, such as Townsend (1979), argue that they should be involved in researching social problems and making policy recommendations to eradicate them.

• For example, Townsend conducted research on poverty. On the basis of his findings, he made recommendations for policies such as higher benefit levels, and more public spending on health, education and welfare.

The social democratic perspective

• Similarly, the B_____ R_____ (1980) on class inequalities in health made ___ f____-r_____ policy recommendations for reducing these d____-r_____ inequalities.

• These included f____ s____ m_____ for all children, improved w____ c_____ and more spending to i____ h____.

• The L____ government had originally commissioned the report in 19___ but it was only completed in 19____, the year after what?

  
  

The social democratic perspective

• Similarly, the Black Report (1980) on class inequalities in health made 37 far-reaching policy recommendations for reducing these deep-rooted inequalities.

• These included free school meals for all children, improved working conditions and more spending to improve housing.

• The Labour government had originally commissioned the report in 1977 but it was only completed in 1980, the year after Mrs Thatcher's Conservative government came to power.

• Her government refused to implement the report's recommendations on grounds of cost, and tried to restrict its publication.

The social democratic perspective →Criticisms

✘- Marxists criticise the social democratic perspective. While they agree what?, they r____ the idea that even policies as f___-r____ as those proposed by the Black Report are enough to s___ the p____.

• In their view, it is c____ that is ultimately r____ for these i____ and so the problem cannot be solved without abolishing c____.

• They also argue that in any event, as the government response to the Black Report showed, the capitalist state is unlikely to do what?

• Thus, social policies proposed by sociologists such as Townsend will fall on d___ e___

The social democratic perspective →Criticisms

✘- Marxists criticise the social democratic perspective. While they agree that social problems such as class inequalities in health are deep-rooted, they reject the idea that even policies as far-reaching as those proposed by the Black Report are enough to solve the problem.

• In their view, it is capitalism that is ultimately responsible for these inequalities and so the problem cannot be solved without abolishing capitalism.

• They also argue that in any event, as the government response to the Black Report showed, the capitalist state is unlikely to introduce costly public spending policies to benefit the working class. (they are greedy)

• Thus, social policies proposed by sociologists such as Townsend will fall on deaf ears

The social democratic perspective → Criticisms

✘- From a different perspective, postmodernists criticise attempts by sociologists to influence policy. For postmodernists, it is impossible to do what? .

• All knowledge produced by research is u____, and so sociological findings cannot provide a s____ basis for policy-making.

• Postmodernists argue sociologists should act as i____, offering m_____ p____ on social reality rather than l____ like f____ and s___ d____, who claim o____ t___ and shape policy.

The social democratic perspective →Criticisms

✘- From a different perspective, postmodernists criticise attempts by sociologists to influence policy. For postmodernists, it is impossible to discover objective truth.

• All knowledge produced by research is uncertain, and so sociological findings cannot provide a satisfactory basis for policy-making.

• Postmodernists argue sociologists should act as interpreters, offering multiple perspectives on social reality rather than legislators like functionalists and social democrats, who claim objective truth and shape policy.

Marxism

• Marxists see society as how?

• Unlike functionalists, they do not see the s___ and its p____ as b____ all members of society. In the Marxist view, the state represents the r____ class, and its social policies serve the i____ of c____, not those of society as a w___:

  • Policies provide i____ l____ to mask c____ e____. For example, the welfare state gives capitalism a 'human face', - what does this mean?

  • They maintain the l____ f____ for further exploitation For example, the NHS serves c____ by keeping w___ fit enough to work.

  • They are a means of p____ r____ when c____ c____ i____ and t______the s___ of c____. For example, Marxists see the policies that created the w____ s____ after the Second World War (1939-45) as a way of buying off w___-c___ o___ to capitalism.

Marxism

• Marxists see society as divided by a conflict in which the ruling capitalist class exploit the labour of the working class.

• Unlike functionalists, they do not see the state and its policies as benefiting all members of society. In the Marxist view, the state represents the ruling class, and its social policies serve the interests of capitalism, not those of society as a whole:

  • Policies provide ideological legitimation to mask capitalist exploitation. For example, the welfare state gives capitalism a 'human face', making it appear that the system cares about the poor, sick and old.

  • They maintain the labour force for further exploitation For example, the NHS serves capitalism by keeping workers fit enough to work.

  • They are a means of preventing revolution when class conflict intensifies and threatens the stability of capitalism. For example, Marxists see the policies that created the welfare state after the Second World War (1939-45) as a way of buying off working-class opposition to capitalism.

Marxism

• Marxists recognise that social policies do sometimes provide real, if l___, b____ to the working class.

• However, such gains are constantly threatened with wha?

• Therefore, research that reveals the u____ t____ about the s____ p____ c____ c____ will not be used to f____ policies to solve these problems - as the fate of the Black Report shows.

• In fact, for Marxists, such problems cannot be solved by the c____ state in any case, since capitalism is based on putting p____ before h____ n___.

• What is the only solution to social problems ?

Marxism

• Marxists recognise that social policies do sometimes provide real, if limited, benefits to the working class.

• However, such gains are constantly threatened with reversal by capitalism's tendency to go into periodic crises of profitability, leading to cuts in state spending on welfare.

• Therefore, research that reveals the unpleasant truth about the social problems capitalism creates will not be used to formulate policies to solve these problems - as the fate of the Black Report shows.

• In fact, for Marxists, such problems cannot be solved by the capitalist state in any case, since capitalism is based on putting profits before human needs.

• The only solution to social problems is a revolution to overthrow capitalism and create a classless society.

Marxism

• For Marxists, therefore, the sociologist's main role should be what? not to s____ the c____ s____.

• The sociologist must reveal the e____ that u____ capitalism, and the way in which the ruling class use social policies to do what?

Marxism

• For Marxists, therefore, the sociologist's main role should be to criticise capitalist social policy, not to serve the capitalist state.

• The sociologist must reveal the exploitation that underpins capitalism, and the way in which the ruling class use social policies to mask this exploitation and buy off revolt with minor concessions.

Marxism→ Criticisms

✘- However, critics argue that Marxist views on social policy and the role of sociologists are i____ and p____

• . Social democrats c___ them for r____ the idea that r____ can help bring about p____ p___ within the capitalist system.

• For example, poverty researchers such as T___ have at times had a p____ i____ on policy, using e____ research to i____ g____ decisions on w____, b____, and p___ s____, showing that meaningful change can occur within c____.

Marxism→ Criticisms

✘- However, critics argue that Marxist views on social policy and the role of sociologists are impractical and pessimistic

• . Social democrats criticise them for rejecting the idea that research can help bring about progressive policies within the capitalist system.

• For example, poverty researchers such as Townsend have at times had a positive impact on policy, using empirical research to influence government decisions on welfare, benefits, and public spending, showing that meaningful change can occur within capitalism.

Feminism

• Like Marxists, feminists see society as based on conflict, but what is the difference?

• Society is p____ (m____ d____), benefiting men at women's e____, and the state perpetuates w____ s_____ through its social policies.

• For example, family policies may assume what?

• Thus, if the state assumes this and offers b____ to m____ couples but not to c____ ones, these policies may produce a s___-f_____ p_____, encouraging the kind of family that the state assumed to be the n____ in the first place and making it more d____ for people to live in other kinds of f_____.

Feminism

• Like Marxists, feminists see society as based on conflict, but in their view the fundamental conflict is between genders, not classes.

• Society is patriarchal (male dominated), benefiting men at women's expense, and the state perpetuates women's subordination through its social policies.

• For example, family policies may assume that the 'normal' family is a conventional nuclear family with a heterosexual married couple.

• Thus, if the state assumes this and offers benefits to married couples but not to cohabiting ones, these policies may produce a self-fulfilling prophecy, encouraging the kind of family that the state assumed to be the norm in the first place and making it more difficult for people to live in other kinds of family.

Feminism

• Feminist research has had an i____ in a number of policy areas. For example, in education, it has influenced policies such as l____ m____ that promote more p____ i____ of f____ and t____ to s____ teachers to the need to avoid g____ b___.

• Sociologists such as A____ O____ have highlighted how gender roles are s_____ c___ and reinforced through institutions like e_____, helping to inform policies aimed at reducing g____ i____.

• Many of these policies reflect the liberal feminist view of what?

Feminism

• Feminist research has had an impact in a number of policy areas. For example, in education, it has influenced policies such as learning materials that promote more positive images of females and training to sensitise teachers to the need to avoid gender bias.

• Sociologists such as Ann Oakley have highlighted how gender roles are socially constructed and reinforced through institutions like education, helping to inform policies aimed at reducing gender inequality.

• Many of these policies reflect the liberal feminist view that anti-discrimination reforms will ultimately bring about gender equality.

Feminism

• On the other hand, radical feminist ideas have also had some influence on social policy.

• Radical feminists regard men as the d____ o____ of w___, especially through the f____.

• They therefore favour separatism - what is this?

• . One policy that reflects this is r____ for women escaping d___ v____. For example, the W____ A____ F____ supports a n____ n____ of over 500 such services, often with f___ from government.

Feminism

• On the other hand, radical feminist ideas have also had some influence on social policy.

• Radical feminists regard men as the direct oppressors of women, especially through the family.

• They therefore favour separatism - the idea that women need to separate themselves from men to be free from patriarchy

• . One policy that reflects this is refuges for women escaping domestic violence. For example, the Women's Aid Federation supports a national network of over 500 such services, often with funding from government.

Feminism - evaluation

✓- Overall, it is clear that feminist sociological research has had some i____ on social policies in areas that affect women, in part due to the s____ of the b___ feminist movement in gaining greater political influence since the 1970s.

✘- However, many feminists reject the view that reformist social policies can l____ women.

• Radical feminists such as G_____ G___ argue that patriarchy is deeply e___ in society, meaning only r____ c____ such as women’s s____ l____ can achieve gender equality.

• However, this view can be criticised for being iFfff, as it dismisses the value of what?, in reality, improved women’s lives (e.g. equal pay legislation and anti-discrimination laws)

• . By rejecting reform, radical feminists may overlook how social policy can still bring about meaningful, if limited, p___ within existing systems.

Feminism - evaluation

✓- Overall, it is clear that feminist sociological research has had some impact on social policies in areas that affect women, in part due to the success of the broader feminist movement in gaining greater political influence since the 1970s.

✘- However, many feminists reject the view that reformist social policies can liberate women.

• Radical feminists such as Germaine Greer argue that patriarchy is deeply embedded in society, meaning only revolutionary change such as women’s sexual liberation can achieve gender equality.

• However, this view can be criticised for being impractical, as it dismisses the value of gradual policy reforms which have, in reality, improved women’s lives (e.g. equal pay legislation and anti-discrimination laws)

• . By rejecting reform, radical feminists may overlook how social policy can still bring about meaningful, if limited, progress within existing systems.

The New Right

• The New Right believe that the state should have only m____ i____ in society.

• In particular, they are opposed to using s___ p____ of w____ to deal with social problems.

• In their view, state intervention in areas such as what?robs people of their f____ to make their own c____ and undermines their sense of r____.

• This in turn leads to greater social problems, such as c___ and d____.

• For example, C_____ M__ (1984) argues that g___ welfare benefits act as 'p____ i___' that w____ the family's s___-r___.

• They encourage the growth of a d___ culture and a u____ of l___ m____, u____ c___, and i___ f____ who abandon their f____.

• For this reason, Murray favours what?

The New Right

• The New Right believe that the state should have only minimal involvement in society.

• In particular, they are opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems.

• In their view, state intervention in areas such as family life, income support, education and health care robs people of their freedom to make their own choices and undermines their sense of responsibility.

• This in turn leads to greater social problems, such as crime and delinquency.

• For example, Charles Murray (1984) argues that generous welfare benefits act as 'perverse incentives' that weaken the family's self-reliance.

• They encourage the growth of a dependency culture and an underclass of lone mothers, undisciplined children, and irresponsible fathers who abandon their families.

• For this reason, Murray favours a reduction in state spending on welfare.

The New Right

• The New Right are therefore highly critical of many existing policies.

• However, they are not opposed to social policy as such, and they see the role of sociologists as what?

• These policies should aim to restore what?, rather than l___ it to the s___.

• For example, B____ B____, a report by C___ t___ t___, the S___ J___ P___ G___ (2007), proposes a range of new social policies aimed at the f____.

• These include m_____ p____ and p____ c____, and support from the tax and benefit system for m____ who s___ at h___.

• The report's main idea is that governments have stripped citizens of what? and neglected what?

• The role of social policy should be what?

The New Right

• The New Right are therefore highly critical of many existing policies.

• However, they are not opposed to social policy as such, and they see the role of sociologists as being to propose alternative policies.

• These policies should aim to restore individuals responsibility for their own welfare, rather than leaving it to the state.

• For example, Breakdown Britain, a report by Conservative think tank, the Social Justice Policy Group (2007), proposes a range of new social policies aimed at the family.

• These include marriage preparation and parenting classes, and support from the tax and benefit system for mothers who stay at home.

• The report's main idea is that governments have stripped citizens of responsibility for their own welfare and neglected the support networks that give people their quality of life.

• The role of social policy should be to enable people to help themselves, rather than the welfare state attempting, and failing, to do it for them.

The New Right - Influence of New Right thinking

• Because of its ideological opposition to the state having a major role in welfare, New Right thinking has tended to be particularly attractive to the c____ P___.

• However, some L____ policies have shown the influence of New Right views. For example, New Labour regards a married couple as what?

• While not seeing a major role for the state in welfare, the New Right support what?

The New Right - Influence of New Right thinking

• Because of its ideological opposition to the state having a major role in welfare, New Right thinking has tended to be particularly attractive to the Conservative Party.

• However, some Labour policies have shown the influence of New Right views. For example, New Labour regards a married couple as normally the best place to bring up children.

• While not seeing a major role for the state in welfare, the New Right support a strong 'law and order' policy

The New Right - Influence of New Right thinking

✓- research by r____ r____ such as W___ and ‘____ has been i____ in introducing z____ t___ p____.

✘- However, the r____ used by the New Right has been q___.

• For example, the v____ of the data on which M____ bases his claims about a link between what 2 things has been challenged.

• Similarly, New Right policy proposals often use the findings of what?

The New Right - Influence of New Right thinking

✓- research by right realists such as Wilson and Kelling has been influential in introducing zero tolerance policies.

✘- However, the research used by the New Right has been questioned.

• For example, the validity of the data on which Murray bases his claims about a link between absent fathers and delinquency has been challenged.

• Similarly, New Right policy proposals often use the findings of politically sympathetic think tanks.