Approaches

assumptions of behaviourism (learning approach)

1. humans are born ‘tabula rasa’ (as a blank slate) 

2. Human behaviour is learnt through experience (classical and operant conditioning) 

3. Only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically. 

4. valid to study animals as they share the same principles of learning so conclusions can be applied to humans. 

 

classical conditioning

learning through association

classical conditioning researcher and aim

Pavlov

To investigate how dogs could be conditioned using classical conditioning.

classical conditioning method

Pavlov rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before presenting food (unconditioned stimulus) to dogs.

After repeating this pairing multiple times, he observed the dogs' reactions to the bell alone.

classical conditioning results

After several pairings of the bell with food, the dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell, even without food being presented. This was the conditioned response.

classical conditioning conclusions

neutral stimulus (the bell) could become a conditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response (salivation) after being repeatedly associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food). demonstrates behaviour can be learned through association

operant condioning

learning through consequence

operant conditioning researcher and aim

skinner to investigate how animals respond to operant conditioning

operant conditioning method

• set up a ‘skinner box’; a controlled environment

• Rats moved around in the box and when they pressed the lever they received a food pellet

• rats repeated the pulling of the lever, each time receiving a pellet.

• then light stimulus, when the green light was on, and the lever pulled, the rat received a food pellet, but when it was red, and they pulled the lever, it led to an electric shock

operant conditioning results

Rats quickly learned when to pull the lever to get food or prevent electric shock and also, when to avoid pulling the lever (i.e. when the red light was on). They learnt this because of the consequences of their behaviour.

operant conditioning conclusion

• Positive reinforcement: adding a desirable or pleasant consequence after a behaviour, such as a reward, in order to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. The rat received food when pressing the lever (while the green light was on) so continued to press it.

• Negative reinforcement: preventing an unpleasant consequence after the desired behaviour is displayed in order to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. The rat received an electric shock unless it pressed the lever soon after the speaker buzzed, so the rat continued to press the lever.

• Punishment: an unpleasant consequence stops the behaviour from being repeated. The rat stopped pressing the lever when the red light was on, because of the electric shock it had received.

behaviourists mostly use animals in their studies into classical and operant conditioning, and it may not be accurate to apply animal findings to humans AO3

• behaviourist has high internal validity as uses scientific lab

• Behaviourists have always claimed that all animals learn in the same way so that Pavlov’s findings of classical conditioning in dogs ought to apply to humans too. However, humans have more complex brains, and language – it may be that humans are able to exercise more choice over their behaviour than animals, so that animal findings might not apply to humans.

• in a case study; ‘Little Albert’, Watson and Rayner were able to create a phobia using the principles of classical conditioning in a human. However, this is only a single individual, and the findings may not generalise to all humans

• although we have a body of evidence of classical conditioning in animals, we cannot be sure that these principles accurately explain human behaviour.

behaviourist approach disregards nature, and only takes nurture into account to explain human behaviour AO3

• Behaviourists agree with Locke’s claim that humans arrive as a blank slate. They argue that we have no innate abilities, everything a child develops is due to their environment and experiences. E:

• If this were true that we would not find that mental illnesses run in families, when the children are adopted and raised by different families. In fact, Tienari found that when children of schizophrenic mothers were raised in adoptive families, they had a much higher incidence of schizophrenia than the baseline of 1% in the population.

• This suggests that behaviourists are wrong to claim that nature makes no contributions towards explaining human behaviour.

evidence supporting behaviourist approach disregarding nature

Tienari found that when children of schizophrenic mothers were raised in adoptive families, they had a much higher incidence of schizophrenia than the baseline of 1% in the population.

useful applications of the behaviourist approach in the form of treatments for phobias AO3

• Behaviourists argue that if classical conditioning creates phobias, then by exposing people to their phobia, while keeping them calm and relaxed, the phobia will be extinguished.

• exposure therapies (such as flooding and systematic desensitisation) have been developed to treat people with phobias – with success at reducing people’s fear levels

• even if the behaviourist approach is not right about nurture being the sole cause of human behaviour, it has led to useful phobia treatments that can leave people less afraid and therefore with a better quality of life

behaviourist approach reductionist AO3

• reduces behaviour to stimulus response

• disregards social factors

• but high internal validity

assumptions of social learning theory (learning approach)

• People learn through observing and imitating others.

• Imitation is more likely if the person is a role model, someone that the observer identifies with.

• principles of operant conditioning can be experienced directly or indirectly – we can learn vicariously.

• Between observing and reproducing behaviour there are 4 mediational processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation).

vicarious reinforcement

• describes what happens when we learn through the consequences that other people experience. For example, if we see another person experience positive reinforcement (e.g. they are praised for their excellent fashion sense) then we are likely to copy with behaviour with the hope of getting the same reward

• uses the idea of operant conditioning but, unlike behaviourism where every person has to experience the consequences of their actions directly, social learning theory (SLT) argues that we can learn vicariously

mediational processes (ARMM)

• Attention: firstly, the observer needs to have noticed and be watching. They are more likely to pay attention to people they relate to

• Retention: learning will only take place if the behaviour is committed to memory, and can be retrieved

• Motor reproduction: The observer must be physically able to perform the behaviour for imitation to occur. For example a child may want to imitate the skills of a footballer they watch on TV but may lack the necessary ability and coordination to actually reproduce the behaviour.

• Motivation: For a behaviour to be imitated, an individual needs the right motivation to do it. If an individual observed a model being positively reinforced, this provides vicarious reinforcement to perform the behaviour. An individual will be motivated to perform a behaviour if they think they will be directly reinforced. They will weigh up the chances of these consequences: they will be more likely to display a behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of negative consequences.

bobo doll research researcher and aim, participants

• bandura

• To investigate whether children will imitate violent behaviours displayed by adult role models

• 72 children aged 3-6years were recruited (3 groups with 12 boys and. 12 girls).]

• The researchers tested the children’s level of aggression and rated it They then

• used a ‘matched pairs design’ for similar aggression ratings.

bobo doll experiment method

• Stage 1: The children were then placed in different conditions, they either: Watched an aggressive role model who was the same or a different gender to them, Watched a non-aggressive role model who was either the same or a different gender to them or Saw no model (control)

• The aggressive model entered a room full of toys, then they verbally and physically attacked the Bobo doll for 10mins.

• children were now taken to the room with the same toys some of them had seen in the modelling condition of stage 1 and given 20mins free play time. They were observed through a two-way mirror.

bobo doll experiment results

• Children who watched an aggressive adult role model were significantly more likely to imitate the specific verbal and physical behaviour they had seen (e.g. “Sock him in the nose” and pummeling Bobo while sitting on the toy)

• those in the aggressive condition also showed more aggressive generally, showing creative aggressive play (e.g. pretending to shoot Bobo with a gun)

• 70% of the children in the non-aggressive adult role model condition and the control condition showed no aggressive behaviour (physical or verbal). E.g. girls in the aggressive role model condition showed on average 18 aggressive acts, while matched girls in the nonaggressive condition showed on average 0.5 aggressive acts.

• Boys were more likely to imitate aggression, especially if the adult was male.

Social learning theory is supported by well conducted research evidence AO3

• Bandura’s study used a lab study with many controls. eg ensuring that the children were matched for the aggression before the study. This removes the extraneous variable of varying levels of aggression from affecting the dependent variable

• Bandura’s study has also been replicated.

• This well-controlled, scientific evidence supports the claims that SLT makes about vicarious reinforcement being important for children’s learning.

• However a lab study is artificial and probably not an accurate picture of behaviour in real life; the very fact that there are controls makes the situation less natural and realistic, so conclusions might not apply to real life situations

• low eco validity

Social learning theory approach totally ignores nature (biology). AO3

• One reason for Bandura’s finding that boys showed more aggressive behaviour than girls, is likely to be their higher testosterone levels.

• Animal and human studies have consistently found that higher testosterone is associated with higher aggressive behaviour (for example, in male animals, castration reduces aggressive behaviour). These finding suggest that aggression is not entirely learnt but has a biological cause.

• Without considering how biological causes may contribute to human behaviour, SLT offers an incomplete explanation of behaviour

• but prevents biology excusing aggression and not taking accountability for actions, legal system doesn’t work this way

Social learning theory has helped us understand stereotypes because it explains how people learn behaviours and attitudes through observing and imitating others AO3

• For example, individuals often adopt gender-typical behaviours by watching same sex role models in everyday life and in the media.

• This process can lead to the development of sex-role stereotypes, which contribute to sexism and discrimination. By understanding this process, SLT has informed policies – such as guideline for advertising – that aim to reduce stereotypes in the media

• Therefore we can argue that SLT has promoted positive social change by helping to reduce stereotyping and discrimination.

SLT as not reductionist AO3

takes into account free will so not determinist

assumptions of cognitive approach

1. human behaviour is caused by internal mental processes and have cognitive meditative factors

2. internal processes in humans are similar to how computers process info

3. schemas are mental short cuts and the basic building blocks of thoughts

4. to understand human behaviour we must study humans alone

5. researchers will make inferences about the way people process information

schemas

• mental framework to organise information

• helpful for quickly processing info

• however shortcuts may have unconscious biases and may be unhelpfully negative leading to attention bias and prejudice

computer analogy for the cognitive approach

• human information processing is like a computer

• it receives input (from the senses), processes, stores and outputs info (thinking, memory, behaviour)

inferences

evidence + professional guesswork

going beyond immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed

explain 1 assumption about the cognitive approach (3m)

• assumes behaviour is as a result of internal mental processes

• conscious thoughts impact our behaviour

• between stimulus and response, there are cognitive mediating factors that are responsible for an can explain our behaviour

cognitive approach uses inferences AO3

• cognitive psychologists study human internal mental processes which cannot be objectively observed, instead using lab studies, humans can be tested and using results about where the type of errors that are made, cognitive psychologists make inferences about internal mental processing

• whilst lab conditions are well controlled and studies are replicated to test the reliability of results, it is still the case that since inference includes som guesswork, it may be that researchers are drawing inaccurate conclusions that some may be affected by their own biases.

• this means because of the use of inference, cognitive approach is not as scientific as eg the behaviourist approach so conclusions may not be valid

• but emergence of cognitive neuroscience means backed up by biology

by comparing humans to machines in the cognitive approach we reduce human thought to a machine process AO3

• computer analogy provides structure for thinking about human mental processes but it is worth remembering that computers don’t experience emotions that may affect processing

• by using computer analogy cognitive psychologists are in danger of misrepresenting true human thought and oversimplifying it in ‘machine reductionism’

• means the cognitive approach is only a partial representation of human thought, humans processing is actually far more complex, human processing is actually far more complex than inputs, storage, processing, output model used by computers

despite these issues there are some useful applications of the cognitive approach in mental health treatment AO3

• CBT involves therapists helping a client to find and identify irrational or negative bias in their thinking

• by changing these negative and irrational thoughts CBT has been able to treat depression, OCD, schizophrenia and help people reduce their own symptoms by reorganising their thinking

• therefore even if the cognitive approach is reductionist and not as scientific as some psychologist may like it to be, it has led to a successful and effective treatment that is empowering and helps people change their lives

cognitive approach high internal validity AO3

• scientific methods, experimental

• increases internal validity

• but lack off eco validity due to over reliance on lab studies

assumptions of biological approach

1. all behaviour has a physical basis (genes, hormones etc)

2. brain and nervous system determine behaviour

3. behaviour can be inherited and behaviour common in humans today has evolved

4. scientific methods are important in research using empirical evidence (collected from quantified data)

Charles Darwin natural selection

• argued within a gene pool there are always slight genetic mutations

• if genetic variations better enable the individual who holds these genes to survive they will reproduce and pass them on

• over time advantageous trait becomes common in the population

genotypes

individuals genetic makeup eg inherited genes for being tall

phenotype

observable characteristics or behaviours that result from interaction between genotype and environment

nervous system

body’s electrochemical communication system using neuron’s to coordinate functions by transmitting signals

tensions between biological approach and evolutionary psychology

• evolutionary is based on inferences from fossil evidence so more open to bias

• Lacy and Ocobock argue researchers made gendered assumptions assuming men were hunters and women gatherers

• although we assume weapons and tools were used primarily by men there isn’t enough evidence

• they were found in graves with males and females but used to reinforce gender stereotypes

Biological approach has strong scientific basis AO3

• relies heavily on objective measurable data such as brain scans, genetic testicular and biochemical analysis, enhances reliability of findings making them less prone to researcher bias

• eg brain scans show how specific areas are activated. empirical methods make biological approach credible

• however not all aspects are equally scientific eg evolutionary as many claims are based on assumptions that cannot be tested

biological approach is reductionist AO3

• oversimplifies complex human behaviours by explaining solely in terms of biological processes

• eg explaining depression as due to low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin ignores significant influence of environmental cognitive and social factors

• doesn’t understand complexity of human behaviour by ignoring broader context

biological approach has led to development of effective treatment for mental health conditions AO3

• by understanding biological underpinnings of disorders, researchers can create drug treatments to target specific neurotransmitters in the brain

• anti depressants increase serotonin levels for emotional regulation, improving quality of life and showing practical value of the approach

• ability to apply it to real world problems highlights it importance

biological approach hard determinism

• assumes behaviour is determined by biological factors which limits free will

cognitive neuroscience

aims to explore the neurobiological basis of thought processes and psychological disorders

cognitive neuroscience technological uses

• fmris measure change in blood flow in the brain to show which areas become more active during specific tasks

• pet (positron emission tomography) measure activity levels in diff brain areas by tracking radioactive markers

• these technologies have allowed scientists to investigate relationship between brain activity and cognitive processes

uses of cognitive neuroscience throughout the course

• clive wearing in memory, found he had a damaged hippocampus, helps show the role of the hippocampus in transferring info from STM to LTM, explaining his memory problems

• brain scanning helped identify neurological basis of OCD from increased activity in the caudate nucleuss and OFC which explains obsessive thoughts and behaviours

cognitive neuroscience has practical applications AO3

• advances in brain imagine techniques such as FMRI and PET allow researchers to examine patterns of brain activity linked to cognitive processes

• eg research suggests early differences associated with autism may be detected in infants as young as 3 months

• beneficial as early identification allows intervention to begin sooner when the brain is highly plastic so more able to adapt. early support can help improve communication, social development

• improves psychological wellbeing using scientific knowledge of the brain to develop effective interventions

cognitive neuroscience provides evidence for interaction between biological factors and environmental experiences AO3

• research into neuroplasticity has shown that the brain changes throughout his life in response to experience such as learning new skills, education and rehabilitation following brain injury

• suggests that although bio influences behaviour, it doesn’t completely determine it, instead experiences can alter brain structures and neural connections, demonstrating that nature and nurture can work together

• challenges a purely bio explanation of behaviour supporting interactionist approach

cognitive neuroscience brain imaging technology raises ethical concerns AO3

• 1 application is use of FMRI technology for lie detection, including potential use in legal settings such as courts. thought to be 90% accurate

• could create issues surrounding privacy and informed consent bec brain scans may reveal thoughts or info that individuals don’t wish to share

• additionally brain activity patterns mat not always indicate whether someone is lying, so incorrect conclusions

• although has useful applications, strict ethical guidelines needed to prevent misuse

cognitive neuroscience reductionist AO3

• explains behaviour mainly in terms of brain activity

• however human behaviour is complex and influenced by many factors including social influences

assumptions of psychodynamic approach

1. Freud suggested our behaviour and feelings are affected by unconscious motives. 

2. Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. 

3. Personality is composed of ID, Ego and Superego which are in  constant conflict

4. Personality develops in stages shaped as innate drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood during psychosexual development. 

5. Psychic determinism: all behaviour has a cause/reason. 

unconscious mind

main driving force behind human behaviour and personality

subconscious

accessible info

defence mechanisms

• unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between id and superego

• eg repression, denial, displacement

repression

unpleasant memories kept from conscious awareness unconsciously

denial

unconsciously refusing to acknowledge reality

displacement

focus of a strong emotion is unconsciously expressed on to a neutral object/ person

tripartite personality

Id, ego superego

Id

• present from birth operates in unconscious mind

• driven by instinctive biological drives eg sexual libido and aggressive instincts

• follows pleasure principle seeking immediate gratification without considering consequences

ego

• develops between 18months and 3 years

• operates in both conscious and unconscious mind following the reality principle

• ego attempts to satisfy the ids desires in realistic and socially acceptable ways

• acts as a mediator between id and super ego

super ego

• develops between 3 and 6 years

• represents individuals internalised moral standards

• follows morality principle, striving for moral perfection and producing feelings like guilt when moral rules are broken

psycho sexual stages in order

• oral

• anal

• phallic

• genital

• latency

fixation at a psycho sexual stage

if conflict between instinctive desires and demands of society isn’t resolved because of frustration (too little gratification) or overindulgence (too much) child becomes fixed in the stage

Oral psycho sexual stage

• age: 0-1

• focus of libido: mouth, tongue, biting, chewing

• development: weaning off breast feeding, ego develops

• consequence of fixation adult personality: smoking, over eating

anal psycho sexual stage

• age: 1-3

• focus of libido: anus, bowel, bladder

• development: toilet training

• consequence of fixation adult personality: orderliness/ messiness

phallic psycho sexual stage

• age: 3-6

• focus of libido: genitals masturbation

• development: oedipus and electra complex, superego formed

• consequence of fixation adult personality: deviancy, sexual dysfunction

latency psycho sexual stage

• age: 6-10

• focus of libido: repression of sexual urges

• development: cognitive and social development, superego develops further

• consequence of fixation adult personality: none

genital psycho sexual stage

• age: 12+

• focus of libido: genitals

• development: sexual maturity, development of intimate and sexual relationships

• consequence of fixation adult personality: if all stages completed then sexual maturity and positive mental health achieved

oedipus complex

• occurs in phallic stage

• young boy develops unconscious sexual feelings towards mother because she has been primary source of care and affection, sees father as rival for mothers attention

• conflicting feelings produce castration anxiety, boy fears father will discover unconscious wishes and castrate him as punishment

• identification with the aggressor by unconsciously identifying with father adopting and internalising his attitudes values and behaviour

• resolves conflict allowing development of superego

electra complex

• proposed electra complex for girls in phallic stage

• young girl initially identifies with mother but later develops unconscious feelings for father who becomes main focus of attention

• experiences penis envy when realises she doesn’t have a penis and blames mother

• resolves conflict by repressing feelings towards father replacing desire for a penis with desire to have a baby

• allows girl to identify with her mother, internalising value and develop feminine identify

• superego develops as she adopts mothers moral standards

little hans

• 5 year old who developed phobia of white horses with black markings around mouths and wearing binders

• freud thought symbolic representation of dad with black markings representing moustache and spectacles

• thought hans feared father would castrate him for sexual feelings towards mother

• freud analysed one of fantasies where plumber removed and replaced penis with larger one

• took it as sign he’d become identifying with father marking successful resolution of oedipus complex

• following reassurance from his father that he wouldn’t be harmed, han’s’ phobia disappeared

Freuds interpretation of Little Han’s

• horse phobia symbolised unconscious fear of father

• fear of being bitten represented castration anxiety

• phobia example of displacement

• later fantasies indicated successful identification with aggression

Freuds concepts cannot be scientifically tested so approach lacks scientific credibility AO3

• unconscious mind, defence mechanisms, oedipus complex are proposed to operate outside conscious awareness, difficult to objectively measure

• philosopher Karl Popper argued for a theory to be scientific it must be falsifiable meaning there must be possibility that evidence could be proved wrong

• however freud is difficult to disprove because any behaviour can potentially be explained as the result of unconscious processes

• psychodynamic approach considered pseudoscience reducing credibility of explanation and questions whether approach is valid

psychodynamic approach gender biased as freuds explanations reflect a male POV AO3

• freuds theory has alpha bias exaggerating differences between males and females eg freud suggested female development was inferior as don’t have same oedipus complex thus develop weaker super ego

• if freuds explanations reflect was accurate women would have higher levels of immoral behaviour as have weaker moral control however males generally show higher levels of criminal behaviour than females

• reduces validity however important to consider freud was working within social and cultural context of victorian society where attitudes towards gender were different

psychodynamic approach led to practical application through the development of psychoanalysis AO3

• freud developed psycho analysis using dream analysis, free association and hypnosis to uncover unconscious thoughts and unresolved childhood experiences

• aim to treat underlying cause of psychological problems rather than reducing symptoms

• suggests psychodynamic has practical value because it has contributed to modern psychological therapies and changed how mental health problems are understood

• unlike biological treatments it addresses root cause of psychological distress

• however criticised for being time consuming and inappropriate for schizophrenia

Psychodynamic approach deterministic AO3

• suggests behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences

• individuals had little control over behaviour

• conflicts with idea of free will and suggests we are not responsible for actions

assumptions of humanist approach

1. Humans have free will, each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious primitive instincts and thus not all behaviour is determined. 

2. All individuals are unique and have an innate drive to achieve their maximum potential.  

3. proper understanding of human behaviour is achieved by studying humans - not animals. 

4. Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts thus Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic). 

Maslows hierarchy of needs and drive towards self actualisation

• suggests humans are motivated to satisfy needs in a specific order

• physiological: basic needs at the bottom such as food and shelter, most difficult to ignore

• others towards bottom include safety, belonging (love), self esteem (respect, mastery, achievement)

• if needs met you’ve achieved self actualisation

self actualisation

• achieving personal goals

• reaching one’s full potential

• developing creativity and independence

• having a realistic understanding of oneself and the world

carl rogers the self and the self concept

• everyone has self concept (how a person sees them self) and ideal self (person they’d like to become)

• argues feelings of self worth develop during childhood through interactions esp parents

• the way child is treated and accepted by others influences how they view themselves and own value

congruence

• match between the way a person sees themselves (self concept) and person they’d like to be (ideal self)

• if experiencing congruence then likely to have high self worth, good psychological health, greater confidence

• rare for complete state of congruence, some use defence mechanisms to prevent discomfort from mismatch

conditions of worth

• when people believe they are only accepted or valued if they behave in certain ways

• prevents self actualisation

unconditional positive regard

• being accepted and valued for who you are regardless of mistakes or achievements for healthy development

• helps individuals: develop self worth, becoming authentic selves, moving towards self actualisation

influence of humanistic counselling

• client centred therapy by carl rogers

• provides empathy, genuineness, unconditional positive regard

• non directive approach so therapist acts as a guide instead of giving advice

• not the same as CBT

many of humanistic approaches concepts are difficult to scientifically measure AO3

• concepts eg self actualisation congruence and conditions of worth are subjective and difficult to define objectively

• much humanistic research uses qualitative methods eg interviews which lack scientific objectivity

• lacks empirical evidence and scientific credibility

humanistic approach is culturally biased AO3

• maslows hierarchy places individual achievement and and self actualisation as the highest goal

• however nevis found collectivist cultures eg China may place greater importance on belonging and group needed

• approach reflects western individualistic values rather than universal human experiences

• limited application across diff cultures

humanist approach as practical value as it has influenced counselling and therapy AO3

• rogers developed client centred therapy which uses empathy genuineness and unconditional positive regard

• changed the way therapists work with clients by focusing on personal experiences and individual growth

• elliot found evidence humanistic therapies can improve client outcomes

• important contribution to mental health treatment

• but client centred therapy has limitations of not being accessible to non verbal clients and discounting significance of the past

humanistic approach not deterministic AO3

• recognises free will and individual choice unlike psychodynamic

• however underestimates biological and social factors