Sociology Exam 4

Capitalism

Economic system based on free market competition, private ownership of the means of production, and production for profit

Socialism

Economic system based on collective ownership of the means of production, collective distribution of goods and services, and government regulation of the economy

Private for-profit transactions under socialism

No, according to the ideal type presented in the notes

What socialism seeks

To meet the basic needs of all rather than encourage profits for individuals

Communism

An extreme form of socialism in which the government owns everything

Purely socialist or communist nations

No nations are purely socialist or communist because these are theoretical or ideal types of economies

Agricultural revolution

Social and economic changes following the domestication of plants and animals and increasing efficiency of food production

Industrial revolution

A period of rapid social, technological, and economic change that transformed modern life through developments such as the assembly line and urbanization

Alienation

The sense of dissatisfaction modern workers feel when producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else

Information revolution

The most recent historical and technological change that created new economic and working conditions, made possible by the development of the microchip in the 1970s

Service work

Work performed by people who provide services to businesses or individual clients

Knowledge work

Work primarily involving information or the development and use of knowledge in the workplace

Resistance strategies

Tactics that allow workers to regain some control over working conditions and maintain a sense of autonomy

Labor union

An association of workers who come together to improve their economic status and working conditions

Globalization

Cultural and economic changes resulting from increased international trade and exchange in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries

Sweatshop

A workplace where workers experience extreme exploitation, including low wages, long hours, and poor working conditions

Outsourcing

Contracting out or transferring labor to another country that a company might otherwise have used its own employees to perform

Contingent and alternative workforce

Workers in temporary or freelance positions or those who work as independent contractors

Independent or third sector

The part of the economy composed of nonprofit organizations

Economy

A social institution reflecting how society produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services

Three elements of the economy

Production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

Mixed economy

An economic system that combines elements of capitalism and socialism

Conditions of labor

The conditions that shape people's work, including pay, schedules, safety, pace, dignity, and job security

Employers and owners

Control wages, schedules, productivity expectations, hiring, firing, promotions, surveillance, workplace rules, and benefits

Individual worker control

Workers can choose where to apply, quit, negotiate pay or hours, and withhold labor

Collective worker control

Workers use unions, collective bargaining, group pressure, strikes, walkouts, and labor organizing to influence working conditions

State control over labor

The government influences working conditions through minimum wage laws, safety regulations, anti-discrimination protections, and child labor laws

Collective bargaining

Negotiation between workers, usually represented by a union, and employers over wages and working conditions

Unequal control over labor

When employers, workers, and the state have different levels of power over workplace conditions

Family

A social group of two or more people connected through legal, biological, emotional, or chosen ties who share a sense of identity and may cooperate economically

Nuclear family

A heterosexual couple with one or more children living in one household

Endogamy

Choosing a romantic partner or mate from within one's own social group

Exogamy

Marrying or partnering with someone from a different social group

Propinquity

The tendency to form romantic relationships with people who live close by

Antimiscegenation

The prohibition of interracial marriage, cohabitation, or sexual interaction

Polygyny

One man having multiple wives

Polyandry

One woman having multiple husbands

Instrumental task

A task focused on achieving a tangible goal

Expressive task

A task focused on achieving emotional or relational goals

Single-parent family

A family in which one parent raises one or more children

Blended family

A family formed when individuals bring children from previous relationships into a new family unit

Same-sex parent family

A family in which children are raised by parents of the same sex

Cohabiting partners

People who live together in a romantic relationship without necessarily being married

Families of choice

People who consider one another family through emotional connections and chosen relationships rather than biological or legal ties

Multigenerational household

A household in which multiple generations of a family live together

Social construction of family

The idea that family is defined through social relationships, expectations, and cultural understandings rather than biology alone

Social group

A collection of two or more individuals who interact, share common interests, values, or norms, and have a shared sense of identity

Why sociologists use a broad definition of family

To recognize family diversity across cultures and historical periods, understand changing family structures, and avoid privileging one family form

Family as a social institution

A social institution guided by norms and expectations that performs important functions for society

Functions of families

Socialization of children, emotional support, economic cooperation, regulation of sexual behavior, and care for dependents

Family socialization

The process through which families teach children social norms, values, and expected behaviors

Socially negotiated family membership

The idea that family membership is determined through legal, emotional, and cultural relationships that may not always agree

Institutional deviance

When deviant behavior becomes normalized within a particular culture or institution, making conformity to harmful behavior seem expected

Abu Ghraib

A prison where inmates experienced ritual and sadistic abuse, including the use of animals, nudity, rape, and religion to debase and torture prisoners

Whistle-blower

A person who exposes wrongdoing or misconduct within an organization or institution

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms or expectations

Institutional responsibility

The idea that larger organizational cultures and systems can contribute to or normalize individual deviant actions

Punishment at Abu Ghraib

Only a handful of low-level soldiers were punished, raising questions about whether individuals or larger institutional factors were responsible

Sociological imagination

C. Wright Mills' concept of connecting personal troubles to larger public issues and social structures

Personal troubles

Individual struggles such as trauma, identity conflict, and money problems

Public issues

Larger social problems such as crime, inequality, discrimination, and institutional failure

Modern myths

Superhero stories that reflect and sometimes criticize the societies and cultures that create them

Individualism

The belief or emphasis that individual actions and achievements are central

Technological solutionism

The belief that technological inventions or solutions can solve social problems

American exceptionalism

The idea that America or its people are uniquely special

Immigrant assimilation

The process of adapting to and becoming part of a new society or culture

Erving Goffman's presentation of self

The idea that people perform and present identities to audiences in everyday social interactions

Front stage

The way people present themselves when they are performing for an audience

Back stage

Where people can prepare, relax, or step away from their public presentation

Role strain

Pressure or difficulty experienced within a single social role

Role conflict

Conflict that occurs when the expectations of multiple social roles compete with each other

Socialization narratives

Stories that show how individuals learn who they are and how they are expected to behave

Vigilantism

When individuals take the law into their own hands and bypass formal authority

Labeling theory

The theory that deviance is shaped partly by how people and institutions define, label, and react to certain behaviors

Formal social control

Official methods of regulating behavior through institutions such as police, courts, and laws

Wealth and superhero abilities

Wealth provides access to equipment, time, protection, and opportunities, influencing who can become a hero and what problems they can address

Mutant metaphor

The use of mutants in X-Men to represent civil rights issues, minority status, discrimination, and feared differences

Xavier and Magneto

Xavier represents integration, while Magneto represents militancy

Afrofuturism

A perspective that centers Black possibilities, experiences, and futures through speculative and futuristic storytelling

Hypermasculinity

An exaggerated form of masculinity that emphasizes muscles, toughness, strength, and control

Agency

The ability to have goals and make choices that influence events

Sexualization

The presentation of a character primarily for sexual appeal

Functionalist perspective on superheroes

Heroes help maintain social order by stopping threats and protecting society

Conflict perspective on superheroes

Heroes can reveal institutional failures, inequality, and unequal distributions of power

Symbolic interactionist perspective on superheroes

Focuses on how symbols, identities, interactions, and social labels shape the meanings people attach to heroes and villains

Status quo

The existing social order and established ways society operates

Agency in romantic relationships

Individual desires, attraction, emotions, and personal choices that influence romantic relationships

Structure in romantic relationships

Social forces that limit, influence, or shape people's romantic choices

Opportunity structure

The social environments that shape which potential romantic partners people have access to

Social factors influencing who people meet

Schools, workplaces, neighborhoods, social networks, family, religious groups, and dating apps

Homogamy

The tendency for people to form romantic relationships with others who are similar to themselves

Positive assortative mating

The process through which people tend to partner with others who have similar characteristics

Social class and romantic relationships

Social class can influence romantic partnerships through differences in resources, opportunities, and social environments

Education and romantic relationships

People often meet and partner with others who have similar educational backgrounds

Occupation and romantic relationships

Workplaces influence who people meet through occupational and class-based social networks

Income and romantic relationships

Income can influence access to social opportunities and potential partners

Race and ethnicity in romantic relationships

Racial boundaries, residential segregation, and cultural familiarity influence romantic partnering

Religion and romantic relationships

Shared religious values and family expectations can influence partner selection

Age and romantic relationships

Life stage alignment and gendered age norms influence romantic partnerships