SOC 100 1-3

Sociology

The systematic study of human social behaviour, groups, communities, and societies, focusing on present-day social patterns, norms, and global interconnections.

Sociological Imagination

Concept coined by C. Wright Mills describing the vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experiences and wider historical/societal forces (connecting personal troubles to public issues).

Personal Troubles vs. Public Issues

Personal troubles are individual problems (e.g., a divorce or losing a job); public issues are widespread social problems requiring institutional fixes (e.g., rising national suicide or unemployment rates).

Structural Functionalism

A macro-level theoretical perspective (associated with Émile Durkheim) viewing society as a complex system whose institutional parts work together like building blocks to maintain stability, order, and balance.

Anomie

A state of normlessness or social instability resulting from a breakdown in social standards, values, or a disconnect between individual ambitions and societal expectations.

Conflict Theory

A theory (originating with Karl Marx) that views society as an arena of continual struggle over scarce power and resources between competing social classes and privileged groups.

Alienation

Karl Marx’s concept describing the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, from other people, and from their true human potential under capitalist exploitation.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro-level theoretical perspective focusing on everyday face-to-face interactions, examining how individuals attach subjective meanings and labels to symbols, actions, and situations.

Verstehen

Max Weber’s German concept for empathetic understanding—interpreting and viewing social action from the perspective of the specific group or individuals being studied.

Standpoint Theory

A feminist theoretical concept developed by Dorothy Smith asserting that individuals view and understand the world from unique social locations based on gender, race, class, and lived experiences.

Operationalization

The process of converting abstract theoretical concepts into measurable, concrete variables for empirical research.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability refers to the consistency and replicability of research results; Validity refers to how accurately a study measures the real-world concept it claims to evaluate.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation is a mutual relationship or association between two variables; Causation means one variable directly produces a change in another (correlation does not imply causation).

Participant Observation

A qualitative field research method where the researcher actively participates in interactions and daily activities with the community or group being studied.

Debunking Motif

Peter Berger's theme of social consciousness centered on unmasking social processes and seeing past convenient assumptions to examine reality in an unbiased way.

Decolonizing Methodologies

Research approaches that acknowledge unique Indigenous histories and cultures, prevent harm/stereotyping, and support Indigenous leadership and data ownership.

CARE Principles

An Indigenous data governance framework consisting of Collective Benefits, Authority to Control, Responsibility, and Ethics.

Saturation

The point in qualitative data collection where no new insights, patterns, or information are gained from analyzing additional data.

Triangulation

Comparing and contrasting data collected from multiple sources or methods to validate conclusions and increase trustworthiness.

Culture

The shared filter, lens, and repository of values, beliefs, symbols, behaviors, and material objects that people create, learn, and use to navigate reality.

Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism

Cultural Relativism is evaluating a culture within its own context; Ethnocentrism is using one's own culture as the superior benchmark to judge other cultures.

Cultural Capital

Pierre Bourdieu’s concept referring to the body of high-status knowledge, social skills, tastes, and etiquette that grant social advantages and reinforce class boundaries.

Cultural Literacy

Possessing enough solid background knowledge of mainstream culture to communicate, navigate, and engage effectively within a given society.

Dominant Ideology

A set of cultural beliefs and values supported by powerful groups that justifies, naturalizes, and perpetuates existing social inequalities.

Subculture vs. Counterculture

A Subculture shares unique elements while participating in the larger culture; a Counterculture directly rejects and opposes the dominant values and norms of mainstream society.

Mores vs. Folkways

Mores are strict moral norms distinguishing right from wrong (e.g., prohibitions against lying or stealing); Folkways are informal rules of etiquette distinguishing right from rude (e.g., facing forward in an elevator).

Cultural Lag

The period of maladjustment when non-material culture (values, beliefs, laws) struggles to keep pace with rapid developments in material culture (technology, tools).

Commodification

The process under capitalism where market prices and financial values are attached to goods, services, and basic survival needs.

White Privilege

An "invisible package of unearned assets" and systemic benefits that white individuals enjoy in society solely due to their racial identity.

Debunking Motif

Peter Berger’s concept of unmasking social processes to break through convenient assumptions, excuses, and judgments to view situations as they truly are.

Unrespectable Motif

Peter Berger’s principle of detaching from respectable groups to study, understand, and give voice to marginalized people or those who violate social norms.

Cosmopolitan Motif

Viewing different societies, cultures, and groups in historical context without passing judgment.

Relativization Motif

Being a "social chameleon" who can converse with, adapt to, and understand people across different cultures and groups.

Social Structure

The predictable, invisible patterns of social relationships, positions, and behaviors that shape and constrain human interaction in society.

Social Institution

A complex social structure made up of interconnected roles, statuses, and relationships designed to govern key areas of social life (e.g., education, family, law).

Merton’s Strain Typology (Five Adaptations)

• Conformity: Pursuing societal goals through approved, legal means.

• Innovation: Pursuing societal goals using illegal/illicit means.

• Ritualism: Abandoning goals while strictly adhering to conventional means.

• Retreatism: Giving up on both goals and means, withdrawing from society.

• Rebellion: Rejecting existing goals and means to create new ones.

Enumeration and Description

A primary research goal focused on collecting data to lay out the detailed characteristics or demographics of a population.

Positive vs. Negative Correlation

Positive correlation occurs when two variables increase or decrease together; Negative correlation occurs when one variable increases while the other decreases.

Mixed Methods Approach

Combining quantitative (numerical/statistical) and qualitative (descriptive/textual) research methods to gain a more complete understanding of a phenomenon.

Unstructured vs. Semi-Structured Interviews

Unstructured interviews give total freedom to explore topics organically; Semi-structured interviews follow a scripted core guide but allow the interviewer to pursue new prompts for clarity.

Research Ethics Board (REB)

An institutional governing body that reviews research proposals involving human subjects to protect participant safety, rights, and privacy.

High Culture vs. Popular Culture

High culture includes exclusive preferences (fine arts, ballet) associated with wealthy elites; Popular culture consists of widespread media, artifacts, and practices consumed by mainstream society.

Cultural Appropriation

The unacknowledged, inappropriate, or exploitative adoption of customs, practices, or symbols of a marginalized group by members of a dominant group.

Taboos

Deeply held social prohibitions against behaviors that elicit strong moral outrage and disgust within a culture

Formal vs. Informal Norms

Formal norms are officially documented laws and written rules (e.g., criminal codes); Informal norms are unwritten standards of conduct maintained by casual social expectations.

Sanctions

Social rewards (positive sanctions) or penalties (negative sanctions) used by society to enforce conformity to norms.

Discourse

The framework of language, concepts, and institutional ways of talking about an issue that shapes public understanding and attitudes (e.g., framing people as "unhoused" vs. "homeless").

Protestant Ethic

Max Weber’s theory that Calvinist religious beliefs (viewing hard work and financial profit as signs of divine approval) played a foundational role in fueling modern capitalism.