Psychology 250 - Chapter 1 / The Science of Psychology

Psychology

Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Example: A psychologist conducting a study to observe how sleep deprivation affects a student's performance on a memory test.

Empirical Investigation

Definition: An approach to research that relies on direct sensory experience and systematic observation as data.

Example: Counting the exact number of times a child raises their hand in class rather than guessing their participation level based on a gut feeling.

Psuedopsychology

Definition: Any non-scientific approach to explaining human behavior or natural phenomena that lacks empirical evidence and does not use the scientific method.

Example: Reading an astrology horoscopes column to explain why someone is having a bad day.

Confirmation Bias

Definition: The tendency to notice, accept, and remember information that supports pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradicting evidence.

Example: Believing that full moons cause wild behavior and only noticing disruptive people when the moon is full while ignoring quiet nights.

Structuralism

Definition: An early school of psychology devoted to uncovering the basic elements or "structures" that make up the mind and thought.

Example: Asking participants to describe the basic sensory components (color, warmth, shape) of holding an apple.

Functionalism

Definition: An early psychological approach that believed mental processes should be understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function in survival.

Example: Examining how fear helps an organism adapt and escape dangerous predators.

Gestalt Psychology

Definition: A historical tradition interested in how the brain organizes sensory information into complete, meaningful patterns ("perceptual wholes").

Example: Looking at a collection of dots arranged in a circle and perceiving a complete ring rather than individual dots.

Behaviorism

Definition: A historical school (and modern perspective) asserting that psychology should deal strictly with observable behavior, ignoring unobservable mental states.

Example: Training a dog to sit by offering a treat every time it performs the action.

Psychoanalysis

Definition: An approach developed by Sigmund Freud asserting that mental disorders stem from unconscious conflicts and desires.

Example: Analyzing a person's dreams or slip of the tongue to uncover hidden childhood anxieties.

Biological Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint emphasizing that behavior is determined by complex biological systems, including genetics, neural structures, hormones, and evolution.

Example: Examining how low levels of serotonin in the brain contribute to symptoms of clinical depression.

Developmental Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint focusing on predictable patterns of change in behavior and mental processes across a person's entire lifespan.

Example: Studying how children's language skills progress from babbling to full sentences between ages 1 and 3.

Cognitive Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint that focuses on mental processes—how humans gather, store, process, and interpret information.

Example: Investigating how memory strategies like chunking help people remember long sequences of numbers.

Clinical Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint focused on mental health, mental disorders, and therapeutic techniques. Incorporates both psychodynamic (unconscious conflict) and humanistic (personal growth) views.

Example: A therapist helping a client overcome social anxiety through talk therapy and self-concept exercises.

Behavioral Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint emphasizing how environment, stimulus conditions, and past histories of rewards or punishments shape observable behavior.

Example: A teacher setting up a token economy where students earn points for good behavior to redeem for prizes.

Trait Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint asserting that individual differences arise from combinations of stable, underlying personal characteristics (traits).

Example: Assessing a job applicant using a personality inventory to measure their level of extraversion and conscientiousness.

Societal Perspective

Definition: Viewpoint emphasizing that human behavior must be interpreted within its cultural and social context.

Example: Comparing how individualistic cultures versus collectivist cultures handle workplace competition and cooperation.

Scientific Method

Definition: A 5-step empirical procedure used to test hypotheses under controlled conditions to minimize bias.

Example: Formulating a testable idea, gathering data in an experiment, analyzing the numbers, and publishing the results for peer review.

Hypothesis

Definition: A testable statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study.

Example: "Students who drink coffee before an exam will score significantly higher than students who drink plain water."

Operational Definition

Definition: Clear, precise specifications of how variables are manipulated and measured in an experiment.

Example: Defining "sleep deprivation" specifically as "getting fewer than 4 hours of continuous sleep in a 24-hour period."

Independent Variable

Definition: The condition or factor that the experimenter directly manipulates to observe its effects.

Example: In a medication test, the dosage of the drug given to participants (e.g., 0 mg vs. 50 mg).

Dependent Variable

Definition: The outcome variable that is measured to see if it changed in response to the independent variable.

Example: The participants' test scores after taking or not taking the medication.

Randomization

Definition: Using chance alone to assign subjects to groups or order stimulus presentations to eliminate bias.

Example: Flipping a coin to decide whether a test subject enters the experimental group or the control group.

Experimental Group

Definition: The group of participants in a study who are exposed to the independent variable being tested.

Example: Participants in a study who receive a new memory-enhancing supplement.

Control Group

Definition: The group used as a comparison baseline that does not receive the independent variable (or receives a placebo).

Example: Participants in a study who receive a sugar pill instead of the memory supplement.

Correlational Study

Definition: Research that measures the strength and direction of a natural relationship between two or more variables without direct manipulation.

Example: Studying the statistical relationship between time spent studying and overall GPA.

Correlation Coefficient

Definition: A numerical index showing the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables (ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$).

Example: A correlation coefficient of $+0.85$ indicates a strong positive relationship between study hours and exam grades.

Survey

Definition: A research method used to gather self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors from a group via questionnaires or interviews.

Example: Asking 500 college students to rate their stress levels on a 1–10 scale.

Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without attempting to manipulate the environment.

Example: Sitting quietly in a public park to observe how children take turns on play equipment.

Case Study

Definition: An in-depth investigation of a single individual, small group, or unique situation.

Example: Conducting detailed brain scans, interviews, and cognitive tests on a rare patient who suffered damage to a specific region of the frontal lobe.

Expectancy Bias

Definition: Personal or researcher expectations that subconsciously distort how data is collected or interpreted.

Example: A researcher expecting a drug to work and misinterpreting a participant's neutral facial expression as a sign of feeling better.

Confounding Variables

Definition: Uncontrolled outside variables that could unintentionally influence the outcome of an experiment and obscure the true cause-and-effect relationship.

Example: Conducting a study on light levels and work efficiency, but failing to realize that room temperature also varied across conditions.

Double-Blind Control

Definition: An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the research staff carrying out the experiment are kept unaware ("blind") of who receives the treatment or placebo.

Example: Neither the patients nor the doctors administering injections know who gets the actual vaccine and who receives the saline placebo.

Deception

Definition: Misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of an experiment when knowing the truth would invalidate the results.

Example: Telling participants a test measures handwriting speed when it is actually measuring how long they persist at a difficult task.

Debriefing

Definition: Post-experimental disclosure where researchers explain the true purpose of the study to participants and address any deception used.

Example: Meeting with participants immediately after a trial to explain why misleading instructions were given and answering all of their questions.