Psych U3 AOS2 Dot point 4

Memory as an active cognitive process

Memory

Memory – An active information processing system that enables us to encode, store and retrieve knowledge and skills when needed.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a usable form.

Encoding process

SM 

Convert incoming raw sensory information into electro- chemical energy.  

STM 

Maintenance rehearsal encodes information so that it is temporarily resistant to decay or forgetting. Elaborative rehearsal (and mnemonics) help to further deepen encoding so that it is more permanently stored and resistant to forgetting through a process called consolidation in LTM.

Storage

Retention of information in memory over time.

Storage process

Retain information in our storage system or CPU – the brain – in the hypothetical construct we refer to as ‘memory.’ Short term memory (temporarily), or in Long term memory (potentially permanently inside a semantic network.)

Consolidation - The lasting structural changes to neurons that occur in the brain when a new memory is made permanent.  It is a process that is exposed to factors that may strengthen or weaken the memory for at least 30mins.

Retrieval

The process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.

Retrieval process

Recover information quickly if it is in short-term memory because the storage size is small (capacity 7+-2, because you just go through it all to find what you need. 

Or, 

At a speed relative to how well the information has been stored in LTM. Retrieving your name (quick); retrieving details from a past holiday (more slowly). Using retrieval cues like questions or, beginning letters to locate information from LTM as retrieval cues or prompts is sometimes needed.

Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-store model

• uggests that memory has structural and control features. 

• They referred to structural features as the permanent built in fixed features of memory that do not vary from one situation to another. Comprising the three different stores, their capacity (how much they store) and duration (how long they store it.) 

• They referred to the control processes as the consciously controlled processes. These are selected and used by each individual to suit the situation:

  • Attention - Whether a person selects incoming sensory information determines whether or not it passes onto STM. 

  • Rehearsal - Whether maintenance or elaborative rehearsal is used determines whether information will be held in STM or transferred to LTM.

  • Retrieval - The process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. The success of retrieval is dependent on a number of factors.

Function of sensory memory

Receive sensory information from the environment and stores it (unconsciously) in its sensory form. Encodes Sensory memories and transfers them into STM.

Function of short term memory

Receives encoded information from SM and transfers encoded information to and from LTM

Stores memories by maintaining information in conscious awareness for immediate conscious use in tasks at hand.

Function of long term memory

Receives encoded information from STM, provides potentially unlimited and permanent storage (unconscious). Transfers memories to STM through a process called retrieval to enable conscious re-access and use at a later time in STM.

Sensory memory capacity

Unlimited

Short term memory capacity

Limited to 5-9 pieces (7 +/- bits)

Long term memory capacity

Unlimited

Sensory memory duration

0.2-4 seconds

Short term memory duration

12 – 30 secs. (Average of 18 – 20 secs.)

Long term memory duration

Potentially Permanent

Types of sensory memory

Echoic memory

Iconic memory

Echoic memory

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Function	Stores an unlimited amount of auditory Information in its original sensory form.
Duration  Capacity	3 – 4 seconds unlimited
Example	Eg. Clap your hands and you should still hear a resonant echo…. Eg. The ‘What?’ Attending to TV scenario…. Then answering it before they get to repeat the question.  This exemplifies that we really are not consciously aware of information that is in sensory memory until we attend to it and transfer it to short term memory.

Iconic memory

• 
  

Function		Stores an unlimited amount of visual information in its original sensory form.
Duration  Capacity		0.2 – 0.4 with an average of 0.3 sec. unlimited
Example		Eg. Waving pen scenario and the sparkler loop scenario

Short term memory

• Rehearsal - Process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. 

• Maintenance Rehearsal - repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain it in STM. 

• If uninterrupted, this can keep information in there indefinitely, this does not always lead to long-term storage! Furthermore, this method restricts the already limited storage capacity of STM.

• Verbal – involves words (vocally - aloud, sub-vocal – in your head) 

• Non-verbal – visual/spatial 

• Elaborative Rehearsal (encoding) - The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from LTM.  

• Eg, By teasing out key information and putting it into your own words, thinking about other words with similar meanings/shared first letters that you already know and linking it, or relating information to personal experiences and your personal situation. 

(Self-reference effect - when you relate information to personal experiences or situations, you enhance encoding and are more likely to remember it.) 

• If rehearsal is not used then memories in STM are lost to:

• Decay - “not being used.” The memory will last as long as the duration of STM and will fade and be forgotten. 

• Displacement - “being pushed out” by new information. For instance, if you have reached the full capacity of STM then you shift your attention and focus on something else, what was once on your mind will be forgotten as it has been replaced. Eg. Being introduced to a new group of people.

Long term memory

• Long-term Memory – receives encoded memories from STM, stores an unlimited amount of memories possibly permanently over time for later transfer, through a process of retrieval, back to STM.

• There are two types of LTMs: implicit (non-declarative) and explicit (declarative). 

1. Implicit Memories (non-declarative) – so called as they typically require little conscious effort to retrieve and are often difficult to put into words, rather we demonstrate these memories, our knowledge of them is ‘implied’, through actions and behaviours. 

• Procedural Memories - Memory of actions and skills, and involve knowing “how to” do something. e.g., riding a bike, kicking a football, brushing your teeth, knee-boarding, skate-boarding…  

• Classically Conditioned Memories – Conditioned reflex responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning. (emotional and behavioural/actions)

Eg. If the memory is actioned without your conscious awareness, without you trying to retrieve it then it is a CC’d memory. 

• Little Albert’s anxiety at the sight of the white fury rat.

• Taste aversion to a food/drink that you experience when you sense the sight/smell of the food/drink.

• Blinking (CR) to a tap (NS), which has been paired with a puff of air (UCS)

• Crying in response to a song that you listened to with a person you’ve lost.   

2. Explicit (Declarative) - Memory of specific facts or events that require conscious effort to retrieve and can be easily stated or ‘declared.’ 

• Episodic - (autobiographical knowledge) holds information about specific personal events or experiences. Often characterised by qualities about the memory like the time, place and the psychological and physiological state of the person when the event occurred.  

Eg. Where you were and how you felt when you had your first kiss or experienced your first independent achievement at school. 

• Semantic - (knowledge about the world) holds facts and knowledge we have about the world. Includes specialised knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge of the kind learned in school, rules, everyday general knowledge and the meaning of words.