AP Psychology Study Guide: Thinking, Language, and Memory

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering all 92 key terms and definitions for Thinking, Language, and Memory from the AP Psychology Study Guide.

Mental Set

A tendency to solve a problem using a method that worked in the past, even when a new method would work better.

Prototypes

Mental images or best examples of a category that we use to classify new information.

Priming

The activation of associations in memory that influences how we think or respond.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution if followed correctly, though they can be time-consuming.

Framing

The way information or a choice is presented, which can influence decisions.

Heuristics

Simple mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make judgments quickly.

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that a random event is more or less likely because of what happened previously.

Representative Heuristic

Judging how likely something is based on how closely it matches a prototype, sometimes ignoring actual probability.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing an action because of time, money, or effort already invested, even when stopping would be better.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

Creativity

The ability to produce ideas that are both novel and useful.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible ideas or solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing choices to find one best or correct answer.

Language

A system of spoken, written, or signed symbols and rules used to communicate.

Generative Language

The ability to combine words and rules to create an unlimited number of new sentences.

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive sound units in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of language that carry meaning, such as words or word parts.

Semantics

The rules and meanings of words and sentences.

Grammar

The system of rules that governs how a language is structured, including word order and meaning.

Babbling

An early stage of language development when infants repeat speech-like sounds.

One-Word Stage

A language-development stage, usually around age one, when a child uses single words to express whole ideas.

Two-Word Stage

A language-development stage, usually around age two, when a child combines two words to communicate simple ideas.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech using short, simple combinations of words while leaving out less important words.

Overgeneralizing

Applying a language rule too broadly, such as saying 'goed' instead of 'went.'

Memory

The processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory of facts and experiences that can be intentionally recalled.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory for personally experienced events and their contexts.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory for facts, concepts, and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness or intentional recall.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory for skills and how to perform actions.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future, such as keeping an appointment.

Long-Term Potentiation

A lasting strengthening of connections between neurons through repeated activation; thought to support learning and memory.

Working Memory Model

A model describing working memory as an active system that briefly holds and manipulates information.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates the other components.

Phonological Loop

The working-memory component that temporarily holds and rehearses verbal and sound-based information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The working-memory component that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Multi-Store Model

A model proposing that memory moves through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, brief recording of sensory information from the environment.

Iconic Memory

Very brief visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory sensory memory; sounds can remain available for a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory

A limited-capacity system that briefly holds information, usually for seconds, if it is not rehearsed.

Long-Term Memory

A relatively permanent and potentially vast store of information.

Automatic Processing

Encoding information with little conscious effort, often including space, time, and frequency.

Effortful Processing

Encoding information through conscious attention and effort.

Levels of Processing Model

The idea that memory depends on how deeply information is processed.

Shallow Processing

Processing information based on surface features, such as appearance or sound; usually leads to weaker memory.

Deep Processing

Processing information by focusing on meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge; usually leads to stronger memory.

Structural Processing

A shallow level of processing that focuses on how a word looks, such as its capitalization or font.

Phonemic Processing

A level of processing that focuses on how a word sounds.

Semantic Processing

A deep level of processing that focuses on a word's meaning.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Mnemonic Device

A memory aid, such as an acronym, rhyme, or image, that helps information stick.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that links items to familiar locations along an imagined route.

Chunking

Organizing separate pieces of information into larger, meaningful groups.

Categories/Hierarchies

Organizing information into groups and levels, from broad categories to more specific details, to make it easier to remember.

Spacing Effect

The finding that information is remembered better when study sessions are spread out over time.

Massed Practice

Studying information in one long session, often called cramming.

Distributed Practice

Spreading study sessions over time, which generally improves long-term retention.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list especially well.

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember items at the end of a list especially well.

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to meaning, examples, or knowledge already stored in memory.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for information and events from one's own life.

Amnesia

A loss of memory that can result from brain injury, illness, or other causes.

Retrograde Amnesia

Memory loss for information or events that occurred before the cause of the amnesia.

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty forming new long-term memories after the cause of the amnesia.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive brain disorder that damages memory and other thinking abilities over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without being given answer choices or strong cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when it is presented, such as on a multiple-choice test.

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when the environment at retrieval matches the environment where learning occurred.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall memories that match one's current mood.

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when a person's internal state during retrieval matches the state during learning.

Retrieval Practice

Strengthening memory by actively bringing information to mind, such as by using flashcards or practice questions.

Testing Effect

The finding that retrieving information through tests or practice questions improves later memory more than simply restudying.

Metacognition

Thinking about and monitoring one's own thinking and learning.

Forgetting Curve

The pattern showing that memory often drops quickly after learning, then levels off over time.

Repression

In Freud's theory, the unconscious blocking of distressing thoughts or memories from awareness; the concept is debated.

Encoding Failure

Forgetting because information was not effectively encoded into memory in the first place.

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information presented after an event changes a person's memory of that event.

Interference Theory

The idea that forgetting occurs when other information competes with or disrupts memory.

Source Amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting where, when, or how it was learned.

Retroactive Interference

When newer information makes it harder to remember older information.

Proactive Interference

When older information makes it harder to remember newer information.

Constructive Memory

The idea that memories are rebuilt during recall and can be influenced by expectations, beliefs, and later information.

Inadequate Retrieval

Difficulty accessing information that is stored in memory, sometimes described as a retrieval failure.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The temporary feeling that you know information but cannot quite retrieve it.

Consolidation

The process by which newly formed memories become more stable over time.

Imagination Inflation

An increase in confidence that an event happened after imagining the event, even if it did not happen.

Infantile Amnesia

The inability of most people to remember personal experiences from the first few years of life.