CCJS300 UMD Lehman Exam 2

Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies

alternatives to the experiment as data-gathering strategies include social surveys, participant observation, case studies, life histories, and unobtrusive measures

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)

annual FBI publication of official statistics of crimes *recorded by police* (most widely cited on crime)

Index Crimes: Violent Crime

Murder & non negligent manslaughter, rape, aggrevated assault, & robbery

Index Crimes: Property Crime

burglary, larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, arson (listed but data is not included in index)

Index Crimes History

FBI stopped reporting crime index and went to two independent indexes b/c felt original index had been distorted by including category of larceny/theft

Crime Index

# of crimes per unit population, per 100,000

enables control of population size and permits a fair comparison of different size units

*it is unweighted meaning each offense is summed and in a sense given same importance as all other offenses*

Factors Affecting UCR

-recorded statistics only a portion of true rate

- increases in crime rate from 60's-> 70's... b/c better communication & better recording of crimes

- most federal cases that are "victimless" crimes and white collar crimes are not contained in UCR

Limitations of crime index

*when interpreting UCR statistics, you must consider what arrest statistics do and do not include (doesn't mean crime was solved or suspect was found guilty*

-for multiple offenses, only most serious recorded (hierarchy rule)

- may cause police to concentrate on these crimes at expense of others

Crime Dip

The decline in recorded crime in the 1980s believed to be caused primarily by demographic change but other factors may explain: greater reliance on longer sentences, incarceration, and incapacitation of serious offenders, decline in the state of UCR programs, and unnoticed decline in per capita number of police officers in US in 1980s

*Causes in 1990s: healthy economy, crime prevention programs, decline in domestic violence, incarceration binge, compstat, and community policing, decline in crack epidemic & abortion.*

Hot Spots

high crime areas where policing can concentrate their efforts

Zimring claims that lessons learned from crime decline in New York City include the following:

New York City crime dropped twice as much as anywhere else in US from 1990 -2010

1. success of street policing

2. effective crime control did not require mass incarceration

UCR redesign

1977... call for redesign

finally complete after over 10 years

*biggest change*--> conversion to National Incident Based Reporting System which uses 52 data elements applied to describing victims, offenders, arrestee's, and circumstances of the crime (O.G. UCR only reported summary counts)

NIBRS (National Incident-Based Reporting System)

unit-recording reporting system used in the redesigned UCR in which each local law enforcement agency reports on each individual arrest

2 levels

1. covers all law enforcement agencies & requires basic group A incident-based data on twenty two categories of offenses

2. additional eleven-category group B list of lesser offenses, more detail submissions

NIBRS v. UCR

- incident-based (NIBRS) vs. summary based (UCR)

- expanded offense reporting

- new offense definitions ex. rape

- eliminations of hierarchy rule (meaning all offenses in multiple offense will be reported not just only the serious offense)

- greater specificity of data

-crimes against society also included (instead of just property & persons)

-attempted vs. completed (UCR included attempted as completed and NIBRS states which one the offense actually is)

-better statistical analysis

Eight Benfits to NIBRS victim serivice providers:

1. broad range of crime data

2. victimization data categorized by age & type of crime

3. Data on the victim-offender relationship

4. information on the timing of victimizations

5. data on victimizations involving weapons

6. data on co-occurring victimizations in single incident

7. data on case clearance

8. more complete picture of crime and victimization

NCS-X

collaborative undertaking supported by the Federal Bureau of investigation & other department of Justice Agencies with goal of supporting the collection of nationally representative incident based crime data that can generate detailed national estimates of volume and characteristics of crime known to law enforcement.

Sampling

procedure by which a select subunit of the populations is studied in order to analyze the entire population

*sampling frame*--> complete list of the population under investigation (in which a sample could be taken from)

Probability Sampling

sample chosen by an equal probability of selection method

Probability Sampling: Simple Random Samples

advantage: enables the use of usual statistical procedures

disadvantage: need a complete list of population (sampling frame) to generate & does not guarantee a representative sample

Probability Sampling: Stratified Random Samples

relies on knowledge of the distribution or proportion of population characteristics to choose a sample that assures the representativeness of these characteristics

*disproportionate: Involves oversampling, taking a larger than proportionate number of certain groups to assure the appearance of small groups*

*Proportionate: subjects chosen in roughly same ratio as exists in population*

EPSEM Rule

involves a means of selection in which each element has an equal probability of selection method

Probability Sampling: Cluster

sampling of areas or sections in face to face interviews, aka: field interviews

Probability Sampling: Systematic

involves selecting every nth item on a list to be included in the sample (ex. every 10th person)

*random start*-->choosing a starting point for beginning the choice of subjects from a population list

Probability Sampling: Multistage

involves combinations of stratified, cluster, simple random, & other sampling procedures

Nonprobability sampling

*violates EPSEM Rule*

Nonprobability sampling: Quota sampling

where researcher attempts to to ensure that sample population, for example, age, sex, & race, resemble those in population (like stratified)

Nonprobability sampling: Accidental sampling

sampling of convience, researcher makes little attempts to ensure representativeness of the sample

Nonprobability sampling: Purposive sampling

selection of sample based on researchers skills, judgments, and *needs of research*

*focus groups*-> groups brought together to measure reaction to stimuli

*Mock trials* --> stimulated trials which attempt to reenact all features of actual trial

*Criminal Profiling* --> attempt tp construct typical characteristics of types of criminals

Nonprobability sampling: Snowball Sampling

obtaining a first subject and on the basis of this subject obtains entree and introduction to other subjects

Sampling Size

depends on number of considerations, degree of accuracy required, and funds available. There is no predetermined appropriate sample size for all conditions

*statistically determined by size of sampling error to be tolerated rather than the total size of population (larger sampling size, smaller sampling error)*

Typical research questions for surveys:

*Behaviors* -> "ever used illegal drug?"

*Attitudes/beliefs/opinions* --> "how safe do u feel in neighborhood?"

*Characteristics* --> "highest level of education?"

*Expectations* --> "do you plan to buy a home security system within the next 12 months?"

*Self-Classification* --> "into which social class would you place yourself?"

*Knowledge* --> "as the MD crime rate increased or decreased?"

*Policies* --> "does MD practice "civil asset forfeiture?""

Experiments - respondents are usually...

-Randomly assigned to groups

-Exposed to some sort of "treatment"

-Assessed or measured to see if there are differences between the groups

-Number of variables and hypotheses tested is usually low in experiments

interviews (structured and unstructured)

Structured: question & answers already made, check off responses to questions that are factual & easily fit an expected pattern

Unstructured: provide open ended response to questions

Depth Interview

more intensive or detailed interviews that are particularly useful in life histories or case studies

General Rules for Interviewing

1. Training & orientation

2. Appearance & Demeanor on interviewer

3. familiarity with questions

4. follow wording *EXACTLY*

5. Record Responses EXACTLY

6. Probe for more details from respondents

Advantages of Interviews:

-personal contact with respondents

-higher response rates (more than mail)

-ability to clarify & explain questions

-interviewer also an observer

Disadvantages of Interviews:

- time consuming

- cost

- interviewer effect: bias from researcher, ex. gender, race, other factors

Tape recordings in Interviews

relieves interviewers from note takig and enables them to concentrate on conducting interview

American Mafia: Genesis of Legend --> reported great success in mail surveys by also sending out blank cassettes so participants could answers questions and record themselves

Randomized Response Technique

means of coping with resistance to sensitive questions by using indeterminate questions, ones in which actual question answered is known only to respondent (researcher is blind to question be ing answered)

Ten Commandments of Interviewing: (Berg 2001)

1. never begin interview cold (make small talk)

2. remember your purpose (keep subject on track)

3. Present natural front (relaxed)

4. Demonstrate aware of hearing (be real listener)

5. Think about appearance (dress appropriately)

6. Interview in comfortable place

7. Don't be satisfied with monosyllabic answers (like yes/no)

8. be respectful

9. practice practice practice

10. be cordial & appreciative

Editing

Research staff checking questionnaire for accuracy of responses

Vignettes

Use of short stories about hypothetical characteristics in specified circumstances to whose situation the interviewee is invited to respond (data gathering device)

_invoce *scenarios*, description of future possibilities

Offender Interviews

1. Establish Goal of interview

2. choose offender

3. determine interviewer

4. find appropriate subjects

5. convince subjects to participate

6. maintain field relations

7. conduct interviews

8. sort out truth

9. analyze interview results

10. present findings

11. apply results to tactical and strategic problem solving

Telephone Surveys: Advatages

-No field staff

- easy monitoring of calls (easy monitoring for interview bias)

- inexpensive & predictable expenses

Telephone Surveys: Disadvantages

- excludes individuals without phones

- lower response rates (compared to interviews) and high refusal rates

- difficult to obtained detailed responses

CATI

Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing

CAPI

computer-assisted programmed interviewing in which portable laptop computers are used in field interviews

CART

Continuous Audience Response Technology in which respondents register their reaction to various stimuli on continuous basis using handheld keypad

Random Digit Dialing

Sampling procedure employed in telephone surveys in which random numbers are used to obtain unlisted numbers

Branching Procedure

Interview technique used to narrow down sensitive responses such as income into less threatening categories or ranges ex. yearly income

Victim Surveys

-subjects are asked to report alleged victimizations

- questions a representative sample to obtain estimation of victimization

NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey)

-began in 1972

- conducted using stratified multistage cluster sample

-panel design (repeated interviews every 6 months to bound/provide a benchmark for reports)

- redesigned in mid 1990's

General Points on NCVS redesign

- what is learned from the NCVS depends on what is asked and how it is asked

- data based on redesigned NOT directly comparable to data before 1993

General Findings from NCVS

- for personal & household crimes, NVCS tend to overestimate crime while UCR tends to underestimate crime (true rate is presumably somewhere in-between the two)

- for occupational & corporate & public offender crimes both NCVS & UCR tend to underestimate crimes

Potential & General Problems with Victim (and all) surveys

1. cost of large samples

2. false reports & mistaken reporting/interpretation

3. poor memory & telescoping (remember too well, think it happened more recent than it did)

4. sampling bias

5. over-reporting/ underreporting

6. interviewer bias/effects

7. coding unreliability (human error) & mechanical errors

8. problems measuring certain crimes

Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys

Bounding --> time period which events were recalled as having taken place

Reverse Record Checks--> validation of reported behavior on basis of studying group whose behavior is already known

Surveys - respondents usually all answer the same questions

Survey research is correlative, not causal

More variables and hypotheses

Steps in conducting a survey

1. Develop hypotheses

2. Decide on the type of survey (mail, phone, web)

3. Write survey questions, think about answers

4. Design survey layout

5. Pilot test survey

6. Consider target population

7. Select sample

8. Conduct survey - procedures depend on type

9. Record, then log data

10. Perform statistical analysis

Potential problems with self-reporting data

Inaccurate reporting

Poor use of survey instruments

Poor research designs

Strengths of self-reporting survey

Reliability + validity have improved

Can check self-report against other information

Use other observers, peers, informants

Use of a polygraph

Guidelines for survey construction

1. .Don't ask leading questions - ex. Do you still beat your wife?

2. Don't ask double-barreled questions - ex. How do you get to work and what do you do about lunch?

3. Don't assume known information - ex. Do you support the Miranda decision? (respondents might not know case)

4. avoid vague/objective questions & avoid asking too many questions

5. Put nonthreatening & interesting questions first

Types of Surveys: Mail

*Advantages*:

-Wide geographic coverage

-Avoid interviewer biases

-Respondent privacy

-More time for responding

*Disadvantages*

-Non-responses

-possible differences between respondents and nonrespondents

-slowness of response

*Dealing with non-responses*

-Follow up

-Offer money

-Altruistic appeals (begging)

-Sponsorships/endorsements

-shortened format

Types of Surveys: Internet

*Advantages*

- quick & inexpensive

*Disadvantage*

- Not a random sample

~Hagan says a potential downfall to internet surveys is underrepresentating females, minorities, & elderly... *TRUE*

Verstehen Approach

Weber's notion that researchers understand a group by immersing themselves in the world of the group

Demand Characteristics

over-agreeableness on part of those being surveyed.. respondents give researcher the response they believe is in demand

Verbal Reports V. Behavior

critiques argue that there is often little relationship between attitudes and behaviors

Complete Participation

(more qualitative) researcher joins in & begins to manipulate direction of group activity

Participant as Observer

type most people identify as constituting participant observation... researcher makes presecne known & tries to objectively observe activites of group

Observer as participant

describes a one-visit interview

ex. Holzman & Pines--> depth interviews of thirty primarily white johns & were unable to find pathology ridden depiction of the clients of prostitutes

Complete Observation

(more quantitative) researchers able to secretly observe & record subjects

Variables List

a list of variables being measured keyed to the question number in the questionnaire which are designed to measure each variable

Dummy tables

preliminary blank tables constructed prior to data gathering that suggest the type of data needed, as well as the type of data analysis