Global Music

General aesthetic of West African music

Participation is NOT optional. Without participation, there is no meaning. Music is fundamentally a community event and is integrated into social, economic, political, and everyday life.

Role of music in West African society

Music is integrated into everyday life, politics, economics, cooperative labor, birth, marriage, funerals, puberty rites, seasonal feasts, and other community events.

Why music is culturally important in West Africa

Because music is integrated into so many aspects of life, it can reveal a great deal about the nature of a culture and its community life.

Participation in West African music

Non-participants may be mocked or shamed because refusing to participate can potentially be viewed as rejecting one's family, people, or community.

Music and language in West Africa

Rhythms can become specific text, drums can speak the language of the tribe, and tonal African languages allow pitch to help determine meaning.

Why drums can “speak” in West African music

Drums can imitate the tonal and rhythmic characteristics of spoken language, allowing rhythmic patterns and pitches to communicate ideas.

Repetition in West African music

Repetition is incredibly important because it clarifies meaning and is central to musical form and communication.

Regional exclusivity in West African music

Musical practices can be regionally exclusive, creating pride in a particular area and producing different approaches to playing, singing, and expression.

Central characteristic of West African music

Rhythm is the central and most important musical characteristic. The PowerPoint compares its importance in African music to the importance of harmony in many Western traditions.

Polyrhythm

Generally two or more rhythms occurring at once, forming one combined tapestry of rhythm.

Call and response

Repetition formed through defined alternation between a soloist and chorus.

Responsorial form

A musical form that alternates between a soloist and chorus, making call-and-response central to the structure.

Ostinato/canon form

A repeating rhythmic or musical pattern supports free variations or an improvised soloist performing over the repeating pattern.

Binary form in West African music

Some West African forms are organized into two major sections, an A section and a B section.

Duple and triple rhythms

Duple and triple rhythmic organizations can occur simultaneously, contributing to the layered rhythmic character of West African music.

Off-beat phrasing

Rhythmic phrasing that throws the listener off balance rather than emphasizing the expected beat in a straightforward manner.

Crossrhythms

Conflicting rhythmic patterns caused by two meters being performed simultaneously.

“No main beat”

West African drumming can change too frequently and contain too many interacting parts for the music to be understood through one dominant main beat.

Apart-playing

Each drummer plays an individual part that contributes to the complete rhythmic whole rather than simply following one shared main beat.

Conversational drumming

The master drummer communicates with supporting players through drumming to convey changes and also communicates with dancers.

Aural transfer

The process of transferring syllables or aspects of spoken language onto an instrument.

Rhythmic/time perception

Rhythmic and time perception can be learned through apart-playing rather than through simply following a main beat.

Melody in West African music

Melody is often monophonic, although polyphonic effects can result from overlapping melodic lines.

Musical purpose in West African traditions

The aim is expressing life in all aspects through sound, rather than simply producing sounds that are pleasing to the ear.

Common West African musical performers

Both soloists and groups of instrumentalists are found throughout Africa, while accompanied song is generally more important.

Common misconception about African music: age

African music is not simply “old.” Much of it is new and constantly changes with the times, just as people and generations change.

Common misconception about African music: organization

African music is not simply haphazard or disorganized. Its complex rhythmic structures are organized through interlocking parts and established patterns.

Common misconception about African instruments

Not all African music is expressed through drums and drumming. Although drums are extremely important, African musical traditions use many different instruments and practices.

Griot

A member of the musician caste of West African society who preserves history through song and storytelling; also known as a Jeli and traditionally born into the family institution.

Griot's historical role

Griots preserve historical knowledge through song and storytelling, especially important in societies where relatively little history was written down.

Griot's social role

A griot can function as a musical historian, storyteller, and other culturally important figure; English has no single word that fully captures the function.

Griot inheritance

The griot tradition is typically a family institution. Griots are born into the tradition rather than simply choosing it as an occupation.

Griot gender roles

Both men and women can be griots, although women have often been considered a lesser class within the tradition.

“When a griot dies, the library burns”

The saying emphasizes how much historical, cultural, and genealogical knowledge can be preserved within the living memory of a griot.

Kora

A string instrument associated especially with griots. It has a long hardwood neck, calabash gourd resonator covered with leather, and traditionally about 21 strings tuned with sliding metal rings.

Northern Ewe people

The Northern Ewe are found in the northern Volta region. They migrated in the 14th century and have a different dialect from Southern Ewes while maintaining many similar views of music and dance.

Southern Ewe musical identity

Southern Ewe traditions are associated with southeastern Ghana and include important dance-drumming traditions built around bells, rattles, supporting drums, and master drums.

Ewe musical ensemble concept

Ewe ensembles commonly combine a timeline bell, rattle, supporting drums, and a lead/master drum whose parts interlock to form the complete rhythmic texture.

Gahu

A Southern Ewe dance-drumming style involving drumming, dancing, and singing, with a strongly organized rhythmic ensemble and call-and-response elements.

Gahu geographic association

Gahu is associated with the Ewe tradition of southern Ghana; sources describe it as a dance imported into the Ewe tradition from Nigeria and subsequently adapted to Ewe musical practices.

Gahu instrumentation

Gahu uses gong-gongs, axatse rattles, kagan, kidi, sogo, and a master drum; sources describe agboba as a Gahu master drum, although atsimevu is the customary Ewe master drum.

Gahu musical function

Gahu combines dance, drumming, and singing. Drumming establishes repeating rhythmic structures while master-drum calls can cue dancers and supporting drums respond.

Kpanlogo

A recreational dance and music form associated with the Ga people of the Greater Accra/Accra region of southern Ghana. It emerged among urban youth during the post-independence period.

Kpanlogo function and cultural significance

Kpanlogo developed as an urban youth dance-drumming tradition expressing youthful identity and cultural/political perspectives in post-colonial Ghana.

Kpanlogo instrumentation

A typical Kpanlogo ensemble includes Kpanlogo drums, a metal bell such as nono that establishes the key rhythmic timeline, and a gourd rattle such as fao that supports the rhythm.

Gahu vs. Kpanlogo geographic association

Gahu is associated with the Ewe of southern Ghana, while Kpanlogo originated among the Ga of the Greater Accra/Accra region.

Gahu vs. Kpanlogo function

Gahu is an Ewe dance-drumming tradition involving singing, dancing, and structured drum interaction; Kpanlogo is a Ga recreational urban youth dance-drumming tradition.

Kpanlogo rhythmic structure

Kpanlogo uses a prominent bell timeline supported by rattle and drums, creating an interlocking rhythmic texture.

Bobobo

Also known as Agbeyeye (“New Life”) and Akpese (“Music of Joy”), Bobobo emerged from Kpando in the Volta region and became connected with Ghana's independence movement from 1947–1957.

Bobobo function

Bobobo is generally seen at community events and is performed by a Bobobo band usually attached to the community. It is mainly associated with funerals and other social occasions and is also used in Christian ceremonies.

Bobobo stages

Bobobo is performed in three or four stages: Azolizozo, Ahomu, Uofofo, and an optional final recessional dance.

Azolizozo

The processional stage of Bobobo, usually performed in two columns or as a “march past,” sometimes ending in a semicircle around the drummers.

Ahomu

A special Ewe singing technique involving “clearing the throat.” Songs are performed in free rhythm with bells and rattles, followed by free dance and/or walking.

Uofofo

The main dance/drumming phase. A lead cantor is accompanied by bells, and the master drum, vuga, signals the beginning of the dance and introduction of the chosen Bobobo song.

Bobobo instruments

Bobobo uses instruments including kretsiwa, a Ghanaian metal “castanet”; Uuvi and Asivui percussion parts; and the vuga master drum.

Asivui

An instrument/part in Ewe percussion ensembles; the Asivui leads most percussion ensembles while the Uuvi supports.

Vuga

The master drum in Bobobo, played by the master drummer. It is similar to Kpalongo but larger and wider.

Dagbamba people

The Dagbamba are the largest ethnic group in the Northern Region of Ghana. Their society is heavily patriarchal, with inheritance through the male line.

Dagbamba religion

Islam is predominant, but several traditional ceremonies remain. Traditional religion worships the supreme power Naawuni, and different regions may have sacred animals.

Dagbamba instruments

Dagbamba drums are played by men. Important instruments include the gungon, a double-headed cylindrical drum, and the donno/luna, which resembles the Nigerian talking drum.

Bamaaya

The most popular dance-drumming style in the Northern Region of Ghana and a tradition that reflects Dagbamba attitudes toward women and later social reforms.

Origin/function of Bamaaya

Bamaaya began as a religious ceremony intended to appease gods. After the adoption of Islam, drought and suffering led people to consult oracles, who attributed the drought to how men were treating women.

Bamaaya social meaning

Men were publicly humiliated as atonement: they were required to dress like women and dance before wives and children while being paraded through villages.

Bamaaya musical characteristics

Bamaaya combines procession, singing, fast dance-drumming, proverbs, improvisatory solo dancing, cultural-history songs, praise songs, and a fast recessional.

Bamaaya instruments

Important instruments include the gungon and luna, with the luna signaling phases and changes during the performance.

Malinke/Mandinka people

The Malinke, also called Mandinka, are mainly associated with southern Mali, Guinea, and northern Ivory Coast. They are a subgroup of the Mandé people and descendants of the Mali Empire.

Mandinka social structure

Traditionally the Mandinka are heavily patriarchal and socially stratified through a hereditary caste system including freeborn people, slaves, artisans, and griots.

Mandinka religion

The Mandinka traditionally practice Islam, while their cultural and musical traditions retain important historical social structures and practices.

Djembe

A West African drum associated with the Mandé/Malinke tradition. Its construction is treated as a spiritual exercise, and the drum is traditionally associated with the griot/jeli caste.

Spiritual elements of the djembe

The djembe is described as containing three spirits: the spirit of the tree, the spirit of the animal, and the spirit of the carver.

Djembe function

The djembe typically serves as the lead drum, can start a ceremony, change the song, change the dance, and interpret solo dancers.

Sekeseke

Metal plates attached to a djembe to embellish its sound.

Dundun family

The supporting bass drums of the Mandinka djembe ensemble: doundounba is the lowest/largest, sangban is the middle, and kenkeni is the highest/smallest and is played with a bell.

Manjani

A Mandinka rhythm/dance generally associated with young girls ages 7–14. It is acrobatic, traditionally begins with masks, and is commonly performed after harvest.

Manjani dancer

“Manjani” can refer to the best young pre-pubescent girl dancer in the tribe, often accompanied musically by a daughter of a griot.

Mamaya

A Mandinka dance tradition especially popular in the 1940s–1950s and associated with men's or women's clubs called Ton or Sede.

Mamaya social function

Members of the Ton/Sede support one another, including helping fund events such as weddings and funerals. The club president is called the sedekunti.

Mamaya instrumentation

Mamaya often uses a balafon but is mostly danced to drums.

Sunu/Meyaee

A dance created during colonial times in Mali to honor a young girl named Sunu, who was a great dancer in her village.

Sunu function

Sunu is danced to celebrate good harvests and remains one of the most popular rhythms for song in the Mandinka region.

Kongo/Bantu-Kongo people

The Kongo are often referred to as Bantu-Kongo people, associated with the Congo River basin and languages derived from a shared Bantu source.

Kongolese musical practices

Kongolese drumming most closely resembles conga practices in the Caribbean while also being very similar to West African drumming.

Ngoma

The principal lead drum in Kongolese musical practice. It is larger and deeper than the djembe, and the lowest drum plays the lead.

Kongolese drum ensemble characteristics

Kongolese drumming is described as less ornate than West African drumming. The lead ngoma is light enough to be danced with, and rattles called nsakalas may be worn on the wrists.

Nsakalas

Rattles used in Kongolese musical practices, often worn on the wrists during performance.

General Kongolese practice

Kongolese drumming combines dance and percussion, with the ngoma providing the lead and rhythmic practices showing similarities to both West African and Caribbean conga traditions.

Yoruba people

The Yoruba are from southwestern Nigeria and Benin and border the Ewe people. They originated from a people known as the Oyo.

Yoruba political organization

Yoruba government was organized into city-states, each with a council of elders that elected leaders.

Yoruba religion

Yoruba religion is multi-deistic, with Orishas as gods and Oludumare as the supreme deity. Humans are understood as having both corporeal and spiritual elements.

Orishas/“Orichas”

Deities in Yoruba religion. Priests may be initiated to a particular deity, which can be worshipped through drums such as Bata and Dundun.

Elegba

A Yoruba messenger deity who must be prayed to first in ceremonies because he opens the doors for other Orishas to communicate with the living world. He is also associated with crossroads and trickster traditions.

Ogun

Yoruba Orisha associated with iron and the forge.

Shango

Yoruba Orisha associated with lightning/thunder and masculinity.

Yemoja

Yoruba divine mother of mankind and an Orisha associated with motherhood.

Agayu

Yoruba Orisha associated with volcanoes and deserts and described as the brother of Shango.

Olokun

Yoruba Orisha associated with the ocean.

Bata drums

A Yoruba three-drum ensemble consisting of Iya, the largest; Itotele, the middle drum; and Okonkolo, the smallest.

Yoruba Bata ensemble organization

The Bata drums are led from the bottom, and the three drums interact with one another to form a melodic passage.

Yoruba talking drum/Dundun

A talking drum that mimics Yoruba language. Ropes on the side control head tension; tightening them raises the pitch.

Tonal language and Yoruba talking drums

Because Yoruba is tonal, pitch can communicate differences in meaning. The talking drum exploits pitch and rhythmic patterns to imitate aspects of spoken Yoruba.