Principles of Reasoning

What is an argument?

Premises put forward in favor of a conclusion.

What do premise indicators do?

Help identify the premises in an argument.

What do conclusion indicators do?

Help identify the conclusion in an argument.

How can arguments be represented?

In standard form or through maps/diagrams.

What are the three types of arguments?

Inductive, deductive, and abductive.

What is a proposition?

An expression that has a truth value.

What are arguments composed of?

Propositions.

What kind of sentences express propositions?

Meaningful declarative sentences.

Can different sentences express the same proposition?

Yes, different sentences can express the same proposition.

What are connectives used for?

Linking propositions together.

What is a definition?

Assigning meaning to a term in an argument.

What are the two parts of a definition?

Definiendum and definien.

What is the definiendum?

The term being defined.

What is the definien?

The expression that gives the term its meaning.

What should good definitions seek to be?

Clear and informative.

What should definitions seek to avoid?

Counterexamples.

What are four types of definitions?

Lexical, descriptive, stipulative, and ostensive.

What is a fallacy?

A bad argument notable enough to be named and categorized.

What can fallacies involve?

Irrelevant premises, insufficient evidence, mistaken assumptions, or unclear language.

What is Ad Hominem?

Attacking the person instead of addressing their argument.

What is Appeal to Ignorance?

Claiming something is true because it hasn't been proven false, or vice versa.

What is Appeal to Emotion?

Using emotions instead of relevant evidence to support a conclusion.

What is Appeal to Popularity?

Claiming something is true or good because many people believe it.

What is Appeal to Force?

Using threats or force to support a conclusion.

What is Appeal to Authority?

Using an authority's claim as evidence when it isn't appropriately justified.

What is the Fallacy of Composition?

Assuming what is true of parts must be true of the whole.

What is a False Dilemma?

Presenting only two options when more possibilities exist.

What is Hasty Generalization?

Drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient examples.

What is Post Hoc?

Assuming one event caused another because it happened first.

What is Mistaking Correlation for Causation?

Assuming correlation proves that one thing causes another.

What is the Base Rate Fallacy?

Ignoring general statistical information when evaluating a case.

What is Affirming the Consequent?

If P→Q; Q is true; therefore P is true.

What is Denying the Antecedent?

If P→Q; P is false; therefore Q is false.

What is a cognitive bias?

A psychological tendency that may lead to fallacious reasoning.

How are biases different from fallacies?

Biases are psychological tendencies; fallacies are flaws in arguments.

What are many cognitive biases subtypes of?

Confirmation bias.

What are heuristics?

Reasoning shortcuts that simplify decision-making.

What does it mean for a bias to be self-defensive?

It protects one's existing beliefs or self-image.

What is Confirmation Bias?

Favoring evidence that supports existing beliefs.

What is Belief Bias?

Judging an argument by its conclusion rather than its logic.

What is Hindsight Bias?

Seeing an event as predictable after it has happened.

What is the Representative Heuristic?

Judging probability by how much something resembles a stereotype.

What is the Availability Heuristic?

Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.

What is the Anchoring Heuristic?

Relying too heavily on an initial piece of information.

What is Cognitive Dissonance?

Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs, actions, or values.

What is Attribution Bias?

Systematically misjudging the causes of people's behavior.

What is the Sunk Cost Bias?

Continuing because of resources already invested.

What is the Dunning-Kruger Effect?

Limited knowledge can cause overestimation of one's ability.

What is a necessary condition?

A requirement for something to happen or exist.

What is a sufficient condition?

A condition that is enough for something to happen or exist.

How can necessary and sufficient conditions be represented?

Using Venn diagrams or arrows.

Can a condition be both necessary and sufficient?

Yes.

Can a condition be neither necessary nor sufficient?

Yes.

What does "if" identify?

A sufficient condition.

What does "only if" identify?

A necessary condition.

What does "P if Q" mean?

Q is sufficient for P.

What does "P only if Q" mean?

Q is necessary for P.