PSYC105 - Exam 2 - Language, Learning, Memory

YES THERE ARE 74 SLIDES, BUT THESE ARE NOT THE QUESTIONS IN ORDER ~ Genie and Clyde Questions/Info are NOT included in this

Morpheme

Smallest unit of language that carries MEANING; Ex. the word UNDESIRABLES has 4 (un-desire-able-s)

Phoneme

Smallest distinctive SOUND unit; Ex. the word CAT has 3 (cuh-ah-tuh)

Syntax

Grammatical rules used to order words into meaningful sentences

Semantic Rule in English

Rules used to derive meaning from sounds, words, and sentences; Ex. adding “ed” to a verb to indicate past tense

Receptive Language

ability to comprehend/understand spoken speech

Productive Language

ability to produce spoken words

Telegraphic Speech

abbreviated two-word statements; Ex. “me go” and “want toy”

How does language develop in humans?

Biological mechanisms (brain structures), and environmental exposure/experience

Term for the model that Chomsky believed in

Inborn Universal Grammar ~ Switchbox (born with the ability to learn language BUT it has a shelf life)

Term for the model that Chomsky denounced

Behavioralist model (B.F. Skinner) that said language is learned by association, imitation, and reinforcement

Stages of Language Development (in order)

1. Marginal Babbling (4-6 months): single consonant-vowel sounds like “ma” and “ba”.

2. Reduplicated Babbling (6-9 months): repeated syllables like “ma, ma, ma”.

3. Variegated Babbling (9-10 months): combinations of different sounds like “do-ba-da”.

4. Conversational Babbling: (10-12 months): imitates real speech timing and cadence ~ “Ma-baaagal” (baby waits for response) “Ga-ga ba-ba”

5. Telegraphic speech (18-24 months): abbreviated two word statements like “want toy”

6. Language explosion (2.5-3 years): Lots of language,

Language Explosion

Last stage of language development, ages 2.5-3

Grammar in Language development

system of rules (semantics and syntax) that allows humans to communicate and understand each other

Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis

Benjamin Whorf and Edward Sapir ~ Idea that language determines how we think; Different language = different perception of reality

• The Hopi language has no past tense

• English has a large vocabulary of self-focused emotions (like anger)

• Japanese has more words for interpersonal emotions like sympathy

Creators of the Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis

Benjamin Whorf and Edward Sapir

What bilingual people report when switching languages

thinking differently and feeling like a different person, having a different perception of reality

How linguists define and view determinism

Language influences how we think ~ more language = more complex thoughts

What happens to babies when they are exposed to nonnative phonemes?

If they are not exposed to the sounds, then their brains will let them fade and specialize only in those of the native language

Elephant Study

South African Elephant herd, 14,500 where killed, those that survived had signs of trauma, fear, and distrust ~ their offspring for generations exhibited the same behaviors

Animal Language studies show what?

That animals can learn symbolic communication, form concepts, use tools, and solve problems

Acquisition in classical conditioning

initial learning stage where a neutral stimulus (bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) until the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response (salivation)

How did Pavlov discover Classical Conditioning?

Using a bell to signify food to dogs, which then would salivate

Reinforcer

any event/stimulus following a response that strengthens or increases the frequency of that behavior

Negative Reinforcer

Any stimulus that when removed or reduced after a behavior, strengthens that behavior. Ex. Torture until you get what you want

Positive Reinforcer Example

Money, winning

Main ways that we learn

Associative and Observational Learning

Associative Learning

certain events occur together ~ 2 stimuli together leads to a response and its consequences

Observational Learning

watch someone else experience an event and learn by example

Habituation

a decreasing physiological or behavioral responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated, harmless exposure

Punishment

aims to decrease a behavior

Positive Punishment

adds an undesirable stimulus; Ex. hit with belt

Negative Punishment

removes a desirable stimulus; Ex. no more TV

Learned Helplessness

Martin Seligman ~ dog study, harnessed dog on electrocuted side, eventually dog just laid down and cried even when harness was removed

Other name for Classical Conditioning

Pavlovian Conditioning or Respondent Conditioning

Unconditioned Response

unlearned, naturally occurring automatic reflex/response to an unconditioned stimulus; Ex. salivation to food

Stimulus Generalization

once a response has been conditioned ~ similar responses

Stimulus Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Biologically primed classical conditioning effect where a single pairing of specific food/flavor with illness or nausea creates a strong, long-lasting avoidance of that food

John B. Watson ~ Little Albert Study

Watson conditioned an 11 month old infant (Little Albert) to fear a white rat by pairing its appearance with a loud clash from a steel bar, demonstrating that emotional fears can be classically conditioned.

Homeostasis

the body’s internal state of physiological balance, equilibrium, and stability

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers gradually guide an animal’s actions step-by-step toward a desired target behavior; Ex. ·       Edward Lee Thorndike’s puzzle box ~ (Skinner box)

Heroin’s direct effect on the body

disrupts homeostasis, pain relief, elevated mood

Body’s reaction to heroin

Compensatory response, acts in the opposite direction in an effort to restore homeostasis

Possible conditioned stimuli for heroin users

environmental cues paired with where they get/use the drug, locations, smells, etc.

Drug Tolerance

buildup of counteracting compensatory reactions in the body triggered by conditioned environmental cues, requiring progressively larger drug doses to achieve the same direct high

Continuos Renforcement

Reinforcing a target behavior every time it occurs

Stimulus-Response Pairing after Classical Conditioning

Conditioned stimulus ~ Conditioned Response

Partial Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses

Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (Ex. slot machines)

Fixed Interval: Reinforcement for the first response after a set time period (Ex. bi-weekly paycheck)

Variable Interval: Reinforcement for the first response after varying time intervals (Ex. pop quizzes)

Stage of Classical Conditioning where Pavlov’s Tone-Food Pairing Occurs

The Acquisition Stage

How long does information last in short term memory?

15-30 seconds without rehearsal

Massed Practice

Cramming all at once

Distributed Practice

spreads out study sessions over time

Why does deeper processing lead to better memory?

builds meaningful connections, associations, and self referential framework that makes retrieval easier

What are the 3 steps of memory in order?

1. Encoding

2. Storage (Retention)

3. Retrieval

Exam formats that require the deepest processing

Essay and short answer exams

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition of information to keep it temporarily active in short-term awareness

Retrieval Cue

A sensory trigger; helps access and retrieve stored long-term memories

PTSD

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder; neural rewiring, highly sensitive to environmental cues

Elaboration as a mnemonic strategy

encoding strategy where new information is actively linked to pre existing knowledge and questioned/analyzed deeply

Flashbulb Memory

vivid, detailed “snapshot” off a memory that is highly emotional or significant; Ex. 9/11

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency)

Current term for: Short Term Memory

Working Memory

Type of processing to track event frequency

Automatic Processing

Elizabeth Loftus’s research showed that…

eye witness testimony is easily corrupted by post event information, leading questions, and structural biases

Salient vs. Less Salient Details in eye witness testimony

Central/Salient details are recalled with high accuracy, while Non Salient/Peripheral details are easily missed/guessed at/ distorted

Yerkes-Dodson Law

moderate stress increases memory, while high stress impairs memory

Temporary Bias

expectations, emotional states, context cues can create perceptual sets, leading to MISPERCEPTIONS

Compromised Memory

memory trace has been altered/corrupted by post event information, leading questions, or guesses become permanently integrated into the original recollection

Problems with filling in memory gaps with guesses

guesses are adopted into memory which lead to false details

Beliefs Regarding Eyewitness Confidence vs. Accuracy

jurors and the public assume high witness confidence = high accuracy, but research proves that these are poorly correlated

Supreme Court Criteria for Evaluating Eyewitness Reliability (Reliability Test)

1. Opportunity of the witness to view the offender at the time of the crime.

2. The witness's degree of attention.

3. The accuracy of the witness's prior description of the offender.

4. The witness's level of certainty/confidence.

5. The length of time between the crime and the identification procedure

Relative Judgement (in lineups)

comparing lineup members to each other to choose the person who looks most like the culprit

Absolute Judgement

comparing each person individually against one's mental memory trace

Perceptual Activity in Witness Questioning

active cognitive scanning, focus, and observational processing a witness engaged in during an event, which directly influences which details were encoded into memory