ENSC 320

region/landscape

a large area comprised of a system of interdependent ecosystems

ecosystem

grouping of plants, animals and microbes interacting with each other and their physical environment

community

all plants and animals inhabiting an area

hotspots

areas of species richness (tropics)

intrinsic values

value resides in the object itself

a) existence= knowing that it exists

b) moral= associating with something good

instrumental

value is in its usefullness/economic value

a) use= value directly related to object

b) non-use= value without actually using the object

use value

a) direct value= concerned with satisfaction or enjoyment of consumer

b) indirect value= value of wildlife to society

- contingent valuation/choice experienments (WTA/WTC)

direct value

a) consumptive= remove object from environment

- easy to place value

b) nonconsumptive= object is in natural habitat (recreation, science)

- hard to place value but there are methods

non-use value

a) option= use of object in the future

- easy to place value

b) quasi-option= value of preserving options given expectations that it may have a use for the future

- harder to place value but methods available

c) bequest= no use but preserving for future generations

value orientations

utilitarian

naturalistic

negativistic

doministic

ecologistic-scientific

moralistic

symbolic

humanistic

aesthetic

pre-european era

- natives and climate change responsible for the extinction of large herbivores

era of abundance

- expiditions

- fur trade

- extinction of great auk

era of overexploitation

- western expansion

- decrease in american bison

- extinction of passenger pigeon

- increase in fishery demands (stock crash and non-native introductions)

- national parks

- Thoreau= transcendentalism

- Muir= Sierra Club

era of protection

- regulation and preservation

- common property

- Roosevelt= 1st president with wildlife management focus, established National Forest Service

- Pinchot= 1st chief of US Forest Services, 3 pronged approach, battled timbre companies

era of game management

- resource management

- quantitative population biology

- max. sustainable harvest

- stocking

- Leopold= modern wildlife management, Wilderness Society

era of environmental management

- expansion of park systems

- Carson= modern environmental movement, DDT

- green peace= whaling, anti-nuclear

era of conservation biology

- question MSY

- scientific experiments

- wilson, wilcox, kyoto protocol, earth summit

normative concepts

- how things should be, how to value them

conservation

- long-term protection

- efficient use and decreased consumption of resources

preservation

- maintenance of nature in its natural state

- absence of consumptive resource use

biological integrity

- native species population in their historic variety and numbers interacting naturally

ecological restoration

- the process of returning a biotic community to a condition of biological integrity

ecosystem health

- occurrence of normal ecosystem processes and functions

ecological services

- vital and economically valuable functions of a healthy ecosystem

adaptive resource management

- aim to reduce uncertainty over time through monitoring feedback

ecosystem management

- incorporating entire ecosystems in environmental management rather than just components (Yellowstone)

sustainable development/ecological sustainability

- meeting needs of present without compromising needs of future

ecological rehabiliation

- process of returning an ecosystem to state of health

compositionalism

- people seperate from nature

- component focussed

fuctionalism

- people part of nature

- processes focusses

emergent properties of populations

- abundance/density

- has boundaries

- composition of sex/age

- distribution of pattern/scale

- change over time

natility

number of young born/hatched

recruitment

number of young born that survives reproductive age

mortality

death of individuals expressed as % of a population

fecundity

average # of individuals born and that's alive at time t and survive until time t+1 (survival is only those alive)

N(t+1)=

N(t) + B + I - D - E

or

N(t) x (f+s), in which f+s= population growth rate

exponential population growth

N(t+1)/N(t)= R

logistic population growth

- environmental limit (K) influenced by resource and size limitations

density dependent limits

variables that become more limiting as density increases (food)

density independent limits

variables that are independent of density of population (climate)

deterministic factors

- affect population in constant relation to its size

- predictable and accountable (rate of predation)

stochastic factors

- unpredictable events

- demographic (skewed sex ratio), genetic (changes in genetic composition unrelated to natural selection), environmental (variation in climate), catastrophic

- if population is large, outcome is not as significant

Heath Hen

- catastrophic stochastic fire destroyed large portion of habitat and nests

- severe winter and influx of predators increased environmental stochasticity and further decreased population

- loss of genetic variation and incidence of sterility (genetic stochasticity)

- by 1927, only 2 females left out of 12 (demographic stochasticity)

r-selected species

- rapid reproduction

- short life span

- grow quickly and early maturation

- lots of offspring

- little parental care

- generalists

- lower trophic levels

k-selected species

- slow reproduction

- long life span

- grow slowly and later maturation

- few offspring that's larger in size

- more parental care

- specialists

- higher trophic levels

vulnerability to overexploitation

- species with narrow geographic range/limited distribution= environmental stoichastic events and human disturbances

- species with one or few populations= environmental stoichastic events and human disturbances

- species with small population size= demographic/environmental stoichastic events, loss of genetic variability and human disturbances

- species with low population density= small populations if range is fragmented (stoichastic events)

- large bodied speices= large home ranges, k-strategists

- poor disperers= fail to colonize new habitats

- migratory species= depend on distinct habitat types and susceptible to habitat loss

- summit predators= susceptible to bioaccumulation of pollutants, k-strategists

- species with little genetic variability= fail to adapt to environmental stoichasticity, inbreeding

- habitat specialists= fail to adapt to environmental stoichasticity

- species that congregate= large number of individuals can be lost at a single chance event

- species requiring large home range/continuous habitat= habitat loss/ humane disturbance

- species that have utilitarian value= over-exploitation

habitat loss

- natural habitat is rendered ineffective in supporting the community of species once found there

- destruction (removal)

- transformation (changes that affect species)

species most affected by habitat loss

birds

species-area relationship

S=cA^z

s= number of species

c and z= constant

A= area

- the larger the area, the more number of species it will have

- slope is steepest when area is smaller but levels off after

- smaller habitat do not have enough habitat diversity

habitat fragmentation

- process where a large expanse of habitat is transformed into a number of smaller patches of smaller total areas

- isolated from each other

- occurs as a result of habitat loss

vernal pools

- springs filled with snow melt that are critical for amphibian breedings

- no more pools in new jersey

events of habitat fragmentation

1. block of continguous habitat is broken into smaller patches

2. patches decrease in size and number due to increased vulnerability to disturbance/invasion

3. distance between patches increases

4. quality of habitat patches decreases

5. detrimental influences of edge effects increases

edge effects

- conditions near habitat edge influenced by "matrix" (outside area)

- microclimate change

- entrance for invasive species

- effects of the edge carry into interior effects

- effects penetrate 100 m

habitat fragmentation effects

- total interior/available habitat decreases

- area of remaining habitat patches decrease

- number of remaining patches increase

- connectedness of remaining habitats decrease

island biogeographic theory

- # of species on island determined by balance between immigration and local extinction

- islands near other islands will have more species b/c of greater immigration and colonization

- small islands + isolated= less species (area + isolation effects)

habitat selection

- use of habitat is proportionally high relative to availability

invasive species

- non-native species that have survived, reproduced and spread to the point of causing adverse ecological effects

invasive species traits

- ability to reproduce asexually and sexually

- fast growth and rapid reproduction

- high dispersal ability

- phenotypic plasticity

- tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (generalist)

- ability to live off a wide range of foods (generalist)

- association with humans

- hybridization

modes of invasive introductions

- potential commodity or resource (for furs, food, timber)

- control measures introduced to reduce certain species

- exotic pet release

- domestic animal/cultivar release

- ballast water release (unintentional)

- shipping of commercial products (unintentional)

- removal of natural barriers (unintentional)

Everglades National Park

- mammal declines due to invasive pythons

- generalist predators always able to located suitable prey

- constrictors grow and mature rapidly, habitat generalists, tree-dwelling when young, tolerant of urbanization, well concealed predators, achieve high population densities and serve as hosts for diseases

invasive species and islands

- particularly susceptible to invasive species

- isolation encourages evolution of endemics

- undisturbed isolated islands generally have few less mammals and no large carnivores

- birds impacted the most

chains of extinction due to invasive species

- changes in one species has a ripple or cascading effect through greater community of species

- niche specialists at risk

macquarie island

- humans arrive and kill fur seals, elephant seals and penguins

- rats and mice introduced to island via visiting ships

- cats introduced to island to keep rodents from eating human food

- rabbits introduced as food source

- cat population increased with rabbits introduced

- cats were a main predator for two endemic birds that resulted in extinction

- vegetative damage due to increase population of rabbits

- myxomatosis disease introduced in rabbits

- island vegetation recovers

effects of invasive species

- hybridization

- predation

- disease

- change in herbivory landscape

- resource competition

biomagnification

- tissue concentration of a chemical increases as it passes up the food chain through two or more trophic levels

- chemical does not break down easily in the environment and in the body (stored in fatty tissues instead)

peregrine falcon and biomagnification

- sub lethal effects of DDT that affected reproduction (egg thinning)

- took many years for effects to show and were prolonged

- populations have recovered since the DDT ban supported by production and restoration efforts

hibernating bats and disease

- white nose syndrome

- white fungus on muzzle that makes bats awake up during winter hibernation

- decreases energy

- when they come back to hibernacula, they hibernate closer to cave entrance which is colder

focal species

- species with entire conservation strategy devoted to it

- given emphasis in habitat management or ecosystem and biodiversity protection

keystone species

- crucial in maintaining organization and diversity in their ecological communities

- impact on community is large relative to its abundance

example of keystone species

- predatorial starfish eats mussels

- when removing starfish, decreases diversity of invertebrates and increases numbers of vertebrates

example of keystone predator

- sea otter eat sea urchins

- sea urchins prey on kelp

- need sea otter to maintain urchin population so kelp can provide habitats for other species

example of keystone mutualists

- tropical figs act as mini ecosystems

- frugivores deposit seeds elsewhere and disperse them

keystone herbivores

- herbivores that utilize vegetation to a point where they influence composition and structure

- elephants, bison

keystone modifiers and processor

- species that alter physical environment to create conditions which several other species depend on

- beavers

umbrella species

- species whose protection will also result in the protection of numerous other species

- usually cover large areas in daily/seasonal migration

- large carnivores like grizzly bears

flagship species

- popular or well-known species used to popularize conservation efforts

species at risk

- species low in numbers and at greater risk of extinction or extirpation

IUCN's Red List

- global directory to catalogue plants and animals that are facing a higher risk of global extinction

type of animal with most extinctions

birds due to invasive species, farming and logging

1/3 of amphibians on red list and vulnerable to extinction

extinction risk categories

extinct

extinct in the wild

critically endangered

endangered

vulnerable

near threatened

least concern

data deficient

not evaluated

linear regression vs. chi square test

LR= habitat area vs. species richness

CS= habitat preferences

- considers the number of times different habitat types are used by a wildlife species and compares these "observed data" to the number of times the species should use each habitat type if the species were to use habitats in proportion to their availability in the environment (known as the "expected data")

- each habitat type is used in proportion to its availability (i.e. the animal exhibits no habitat selection), and a significant Chi-square test rejects the null hypothesis, indicating that some habitat types are either avoided (meaning they are used less than expected given their availability) or selected (meaning they are used more than expected)

CITES

- convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna

CITES participation

- participation is voluntary but parties must legally bind by covention once agreed

- parties adopt their own legislation that follows CITES objectives

CITES requirements

- designation of management and scientific authorities

- laws prohibiting trade in violation of CITES

- penalties for such trade

- laws providing for the confiscation of specimens

WAPPRIITA

- wild animals and plant protection and regulation of international and interprovincial trade act

- legislative vehicle by which Canada meets its obligations under CITES

- offence to transport illegally obtained wildlife

Appendix 1-3 for WAPPRITTA

1. species threatened with extinction/affected by trade= illegal for wild-caught specimens

2. species that may become threatened= trade controlled by export permit

3. listed after a party requests for assistance= country may want to protect it

ESA

- US Endangered Species Act

- state-level legislation for protection

- habitat conservation planning (species and habitat are linked)

SARA

- Species at Risk Act

- national legislation for protecting endangered species in Canada

processing of listing on SARA

- species first designated at risk by COSEWIC (group of experts that assess wildlife according to scientific data)

- federal Cabinet makes decision based on COSEWIC's recommendation

- decision made after consulting stakeholders and looking at economic/social issues

- once listed, species is legally protected as well as their habitats

actions taken after SARA listing

- recovery strategies= identifies what needs to be done to stop decline

- action plans= implementation plan for recovery strategy

- management plans= for species of special concern

COSSARO listed species in rank

- plants

- fish

- amphibians

- birds

piping plover

- endangered in canada

- loss of habitat due to recreational use of beaches

barn owl

- endangered in canada

- habitat loss through land use conversion

golden eagle

- endangered in canada

- limited suitable haibtat

acadian flycatcher

- endangered in canada

- habitat fragmentation

king rail

- endangered in canada

- habitat loss through wetland draining and fragmentation, pesticideuse

eastern wolf (lycaon)classification

- currently listed as a subspecies of special concern in Canada

- gray wolf (lupus) was extirpated due to persecution and habitat loss

- red wolf (rufus) currently listed as critically endangered

- coyote (latrans) has expanded range due to land use conversion and human expansion

- coyotes range almost overlaps with grey wolf

- eastern wolves shown to be a sep. sub species may be due to hybridization of grey wolf with either coyote or red wolf

- grey+red= lack of gray wolf alleles, reject

- grey+coyote= lack of unique alleles in eastern wolf, unknown

- eastern wolf closely related to red wolf= strong evidence, now evidence that eastern wolf is hybridizing with coyote (might be the same species)

caribou

- decline in habitat alteration by industrial activities

- mountain= risk of extirpation, motorized winter rec. activities

- migratory tundra= decline, industry, human expansion

- peary= weather, hunting, predation

- CARMA focuses on large migratory tundra herds but not other ecotypes

- protection is based on federal, territorial and provincial levels that requires geographic patchwork of protection

- government reviewed alberta boreal ecotypes as unsuitable for caribou

reenforcement/supplementation

- addition of individuals to an existing population of conspecifics

- used when small population is inbreeding, natural growth is dangerously slow or artificial immigration required to maintain outbreeding

reintroduction and translocation

- greater success with native game species than threatened/endangered species

- great success with herbivores than carnivores/omnivores

- release of more individuals i better

- more success with wild caught animals than captive bred

- multiple reintroductions in many sites better than few introductions in fewer sites

- best success with birds, worst with amphibians