Ant+Phys exam 1

anatomy

structure

physiology

function

homeostasis

-maintenance of a stable internal conditions, without changing outer enviornments

-maintains optimal range

-uses negative feedback loops

the body is in the state of _____ equilibrium

dynamic;

meaning it is consintnly changing

negative feedback loops

body does oppostie, if blood sugar goes up body brings it back down

how does negative feedback work

1. stimulus (the signal)

2. receptor (what grabs onto the signal)

3. integration (decision to FIX the problem)

4. effector (where the body CORRECTS), if too hot body sweats to cool off

positive feedback

amplifies stimulus and once stimulis is gone it will stop

it strengthens a change and pushes it further in the same direction until a specific event is completed.

examples of positive feedback

• Childbirth: Contractions release oxytocin, which makes contractions stronger until the baby is born.

• Blood clotting: Platelets attract more platelets until the wound is sealed.

electrolytes

salts, acids, and bases that ionize in water, into ions

these give electrical signals

things put into water make mixtures… what are the three types of mixtures

solution, colloid and suspension

(blood is all there types of mixtures)

solution mixture

easy to pass through membrane, clear becuase small particles

ex- sugar in coffee, glucose in blood

colloid mixture

cloudy, does not pass through membrane becuase a bit bigger particles, but do not form participation

ex- proteins in blood

suspension mixture

cloudy-opaque, parcipitation

ex- fats in blood, blood cells, cornstartch in water

carbohydrates in the body

energy source

lipids in the body

hydrophobic

main ones- cholesterol, fatty acids, phospholipids, triglycerides

cholesterol

in cell membrane, precursor to steroids

fatty acids

precursor of triglycerides and a source of energy

phospholipids

major factor in cell membrane and aids in fat digestion

cell membrane foundation ( with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail )

triglycerides

primary energy storage, thermal insulation, filling space by binding organs together, cushioning organs

proteins in the body

monomers- amino acids

peptides- short chain

protiens- long chain

what do the proteins need to do in order to function

fold to function

helps with structure, communication, membrane transport, enzymes, and movement

nucleic acids

made of nucleotides (monomers), most important is ATP

important for DNA and RNA

ATP

used for everything, happens during hydrolysis when bonds break they release energy

types of diffusion

simple diffusion, carrier fac diffusion, and channel fac diffusion

for simple diffusion what can pass right through

H20, O2, and CO2

osmosis

diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane

slow- when going through membrane itself

fast- when there are aquaporins which are water carrier proteins

secondary active transport

uses energy indirectly, ones passive then the active uses that energy to launch against gradient

primary active transpot

use energy directly using atp

intracellular fluid

in cells

intersitutial fluid

between cells

what concentration do all body fluids have

300 mOsm/L

exocytosis

releases larger items from cell

endocytosis

brining larger material into cell

autocrine signaling

signal to itself

paracrine signaling

signals to neighboors

endocrine signaling

signals carry to blood, then can travel farh

hormones

circulate in the blood and have access to entire body

only affects cells with receptors that can read the signal

direct cell junctions

gap junctions- communication

channels between cells allowing small molecules to pass to one another for communication

tight junctions

help prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space between the cells

desmosomes

bind neighbooring cells together holding them together

tissues

groups of cells working together to perform a common function

epithelial tissues

covering and lining tissue

is polar because it lines an envionment

apical and basal surface

avascular- no blood vesseles

regenerative quickly

classes of epithelial tissues

simple- one layer

pseudostratified columnar- looks like many layers, but really only one

stratified- many layers

cell shapes

squamous- looks squished, nucleus is flat

cubodial- cube shaped, nucleus shpere

columnar- column shaped, oval nucleus

form follows function

A body part’s shape and structure are designed to help it perform its job.

structural organizational level hierarchy

atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ system, and organism

people share the same basic body plan, but we have small differences that are normal…

• Anatomical variation = differences in body structure, such as height, bone shape, or where a blood vessel runs.

• Physiological variation = differences in how the body functions, such as heart rate, metabolism, or body temperature.

interdependence of body systems

body systems depend on each other and work together to keep you alive and healthy.

what does it mean in the body when something has a set point

that the body tries to keep it in that range of a set point, like body temp

negative feedback loop example on thermoregulation

• Body temperature becomes too high.

• The brain detects the increase.

• Sweating and widening of blood vessels release heat.

• Temperature decreases toward normal.

If body temperature is too low, the body shivers and narrows blood vessels to conserve and produce heat.

negative feedback loop example on blood pressure

• Blood pressure becomes too high.

• Receptors detect the increase.

• The heart slows down and blood vessels widen.

• Blood pressure decreases toward normal.

If blood pressure is too low, the opposite happens.

homeostatic imbalance

happens when the body cannot keep its internal conditions within a healthy range.

examples… Diabetes: Blood sugar stays too high or a Fever: Body temperature rises above normal.

The body has two main control systems that maintain homeostasis:

• Nervous system: Uses fast electrical signals to create quick, short-term responses.
  Example: detecting heat and quickly pulling your hand away.

• Endocrine system: Uses hormones carried through the blood to create slower, longer-lasting responses.

what are some examples of energy flowing down a gradient in the body

• high pressure to low pressure in blood flow down a pressure gradient

• heat flow down thermal gradient

what are the six major elements in the human body

• Oxygen (O)

• Carbon (C)

• Hydrogen (H)

• Nitrogen (N)

• Calcium (Ca)

• Phosphorus (P)

Memory trick: OCHN CaP (“Ocean Cap”).

what is an ion, and what happens when an electrolyte dissolves in water

An ion is an atom or molecule with an electrical charge.

When an electrolyte dissolves in water, it separates into charged ions

what are some of the major ions found in the body

• Sodium (Na⁺)

• Potassium (K⁺)

• Calcium (Ca²⁺)

• Magnesium (Mg²⁺)

• Chloride (Cl⁻)

• Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)

what are the three main chemical bonds in the body

covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds

covalent bonds

Atoms share electrons. These are the strongest bonds in the body.

ionic bonds

Positive and negative ions attract each other. They are weaker in the body because water can separate the ions.

ionic= ironic opposities attract

hydrogen bonds

A weak attraction between slightly positive and slightly negative areas of molecules. These are the weakest bonds, but many together can provide stability.

water is the universal…

solvent

because it can dissolve many different substances.

When electrolytes dissolve in water, they separate into ions.

hydrophilic substances

water loving— these dissolve in water or mixes with it

like sugar or salts

hydrophobic substances

“Water-fearing”—does not mix with or dissolve in water.
Example: fats or oils.

energy in the body

is the capacity to do work, or move something

chemical bonds store free energy that is then used in the body

Decomposition reaction

A larger substance breaks into smaller substances.
AB → A + B

Synthesis reaction

Smaller substances join to create a larger substance.
A + B → AB

Example: joining amino acids to make a protein.

Exchange reaction

Parts of two substances switch places.
AB + CD → AD + CB

metabolism

all chemical reactions in the body

catabolism

Breaking large molecules into smaller ones, usually releasing energy.

anabolism

forming bonds, storing energy

but requires energy

carbohydrates found in the body

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

how are nucleic acids important for dna

instructions for protein synthesis and transfers hereditary information

how are nucleic acids important for rna

carry out protien synthesis

animal cell three basic parts

cell membrane- acts as barrier separating internal and external

cytoplasm w/ organelles- each have specific functions

nucleus- control center

some basic functions of membrane protiens

receptor, enzyme, channel, gated channel

sending signals or acting as a gate

membrane permeability

how easily a substance can pass through a membrane.

selective permeability

membrane lets some substances cross more easily than others.

solute

what is dissolved

solvent

liquid that dissovles somehting

water is the most common

osmolarity

the concentration of dissolved particles (solutes) in a solution.

tonicity

describes how a fluid affects a cell’s size by causing water to move into or out of it.

Osmotic equilibrium

means there is no net movement of water: water still crosses the membrane in both directions, but equal amounts move each way.

what does vesicular transport do

move larger items by exocytosis and endocytosis

what are the four main types of tissues in the body

epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular tissues

CT- connective tissue

holds structires together and provides support

CT- cartilage

provides flexible support and cushions joints

CT- bone tissue

provides ridgid support and protects organs

CT- blood

transports oxygen and nutrients and waste

three basic structure to CT

fibers and ground substance, and a small portion of cells

ground substance in CT

components that attract water to form a gel

fibers in CT

provide structural support

from most to least strength…

collagen, elastic, reticular fibers

extracellular matrix consists of

ground substance and fibers

cells in CT

form the fibers and ground substance

like fibroblasts

basic structure to cartilage

have cells called chondrocytes that sit into the lacuna

Chondroblasts come first than mature into chondrocytes

Around them is a firm but flexible matrix made of ground substance and fibers. The type of fiber is the main difference between the three types

Perichondrium: a covering around most cartilage that helps it grow and repair.

what does cartilage lack?

ts own blood vessels or nerves. Nutrients must slowly move in from nearby tissue through diffusion, so cartilage heals slowly.

has to be thin to stay alive!

hyaline cartilage

tough with a small amount of flexibility

ex. nasal cartilage

elastic cartilage

tons of elastic fibers, so very flexable

ex. ear cartilage

fibrocartilage

very tough, think areas of pressure and stretch

ex. invertabral disk

appositional growth of cartilage

new cartilage formed on the edges. Chondroblasts beneath the perichondrium add new cartilage to the surface, making it thicker.

perichondrium → chondroblasts → new layers outside.