BMS Test 1

Vitamin B2 Coenzyme

FADH2 - produced by catabolic rxns

Vitamin B3 Coenzyme

NADH - produced by catabolic rxns

Vitamin B5 Coenzyme

CoA - carries molecules via its "S"

Water is excellent at dissolving what types of bonds?

Polar bonds (hydrophilic)

How does high hydrogen concentration affect pH?

pH decreases (acidic)

How does low hydrogren concentration affect pH?

pH increases (basic)

What is the definition of an acid?

Molecules that can donate a H+ ion

What is the definition of a base?

Molecules that can accept a H+ ion

When a strong acid is added to a solution, what will happen to the pH?

The pH will decrease because the H+ ions will increase

When a strong base is added to a solution, what will happen to the pH?

The pH will increase because the H+ ions will pair with donated OH- ions to form water

Which part of a weak acid will be ionized? Protonated or deprotonated?

Deprotonated

Which part of a weak base will be ionized? Protonated or deprotonated?

Protonated

pKa values of weak acids

pKa ~ 1-4

pKa values of weak bases

pKa ~ 8-12

If pH < pKa which form will dominate?

Protonated

If pH > pKa which form will dominate?

Deprotonated

If pH = pKa which form will dominate?

Neither - equal amounts of protonated and deprotonated

Anabolic reactions are metabolic pathways that do what?

Build molecules from smaller subunits

Do anabolic reactions require or release energy?

They require energy

Catabolic reactions are metabolic pathways that do what?

Breakdown larger molecules into smaller subunits

Do catabolic reactions require or release energy?

They release energy

What energy intermediates do catabolic reactions produce?

NADH, FADH2

What can we do with the energy intermediates produced by catabolic reactions?

Plug them into the electron transport chain (ETC) to produce energy (ATP)

In what cellular location do you think most catabolic reactions that make NADH and FADH2 are found?

In the mitochondria

Where does the electron transport chain (ETC) located?

The inner mitochondrial membrane

Gluconeogenesis

Makes glucose from precursor molecules (lactate, glycerol, various aa's)

Pentose Phosphate Shunt

Shunts glucose into the creation of various 5-carbon sugars (and NADPH)

Glycogenesis

Makes glycogen (chains of glucose) to store glucose

Glycogenolysis

Breaks down glycogen to release glucose.

Glycolysis

Breaks down glucose to pyruvate to make energy (NADH, ATP).

After glycolysis we can use pyruvate to make what coenzyme?

acetyl CoA

After glycolysis we can use pyruvate to make acetyl CoA, to enter which cycle? citric acid cycle and make more energy

The citric acid cycle (CAC) and make more energy

Fatty Acid Synthesis

Makes fatty acids using acetyl CoA

What is the main subtrate in fatty acid synthesis?

acetyl CoA

Phospholipid Synthesis

Uses fatty acids to make phospholipids (ex for membranes)

Lipogenesis

Makes triglycerides (lipids) (3 fa's on a glycerol backbone) to store fatty acids

Lipolysis

Breaks down triglycerides (lipids) to release fatty acids (and glycerol)

Beta Oxidation

Breaks down fatty acids (as fatty acyl CoAs) to acetyl CoA to produce energy (NADH, FADH2)

What metabolic processes produce acetyl CoA?

glycolysis & beta oxidation

What precursors makes acetyl CoA?

pyruvate & fatty acids

What is a fatty acyl CoA structure?

A fatty acid where to OH has been replaced by CoA

CoA carries the fatty acid chain to:

The mitochondria & glycerol

CoA carries the fatty acid chain to the mitochondria for what?

Beta oxidation

CoA carries the fatty acid chain to glycerol for what?

To make phospholipids or triglycerides

What are the three acetyl CoA related pathways?

Citric acid cycle (CAC), ketogenesis, ketolysis

What two precursors are used to make citrate?

Acetyl CoA & oxaloacetate

Ketogenesis

Liver "stores" acetyl CoA as ketone bodies, sends to other tissues for use

Ketolysis

Extra-hepatic tissues release acetyl CoA by breaking down ketone bodies

Ketogenesis pathway

Acetyl CoA → Ketone Bodies

Ketolysis pathway

Ketone Bodies → Acetyl CoA

Where does the CAC take place?

The mitochondria

Where does actyl CoA synthesis ideally happen?

The mitochondria

Where does the ETC pump H+ ions?

Intermembrane space

Because the ETC needs oxygen to run, it is known as __________________?

oxidative phosphorylation

The process of breaking down carbohydrates (glucose) to produce energy via the ETC is known as ____________________?

aerobic respiration

Excluding the ETC, name all metabolic pathways that produce energy in the form of NADH

acetyl CoA → pyruvate, glycolysis, CAC, beta oxidation

Excluding the ETC, name all metabolic pathways that produce energy in the form of FADH2

CAC & beta oxidation

Excluding the ETC, name all metabolic pathways that produce energy in the form of ATP

CAC & glycolysis

What is the pH range of blood in the body?

7.36 - 7.44

What is the intracellular pH range in the body?

6.9 - 7.4

At what pH does acidosis occur?

At pH below 7.35

At what pH does alkalosis occur?

At pH > 7.45

Name the 3 key physiological buffers

Protein, phosphate, and bicarbonate

Which amino acids have pKa values within 1 unit of intracellular pH, making them good protein buffers?

Cysteine and histidine

What do the kidneys do to make the bicarbonate buffer so effective?

They can modify the rate of bicarbonate excretion

What do the lungs do to make the bicarbonate buffer so effective?

The can modify the rate of CO2 removal by increasing ventilation

What happens to pH levels during hyperventilation?

CO2 levels decrease → H+ decrease → pH increase

What happens to pH levels during hypoventilation?

CO2 levels increase → H+ increase → pH decrease

What are zwitterions?

Amino acids at pH=7 with no net charge across N- & C- terminals

What are the essential amino acids?

Valine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan

What additional amino acids are essential in infants?

Histidine and arginine

What are the non-polar, aliphatic amino acids?

glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, proline, & (sometimes) cysteine

What keto acid goes with alanine?

Pyruvate

What keto acid goes with aspartate?

Oxaloactate

What keto acid goes with glutamate?

α-Ketoglutarate

What do we call multicellular fungi?

Mold and mushrooms

What do we call unicellular fungi?

Yeast

How do fungi reproduce?

Sexually and asexually

What kind of feeders are fungi?

Absorptive heterotrophs

What are the cell walls of fungi made of?

Chitin

What kind of cell wall do archaens have?

Non-peptidoglycan (mainly protein)

What is the key distinction of archaens?

They are often found in extreme environments

What type of cell wall do bacteria have?

Peptidoglycan

What are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells?

No nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, circular chromosomes, asexual reproduction, unicellular/colonial, usually small, and UBIQUITOUS

What are protozoans?

Single-celled eukaryotes with animal like digestion (ingestive heterotrophs)

What is algae?

Unicellular or multicellular, eukaryotic photosynthetic autotrophs

What are animals?

multicellular, eukaryotic ingestive heterotrophs

What is it called when bacteria undergo cell division?

Binary Fission

What are the different forms of reproduction of bacteria?

Binary fission, snapping division, spore formation, budding

What is it called when cocci divide, but don't stick together?

Monococci

Name the external structures of bacterial cells

Glycocalyx, flagella, fimbriae, pili, and the cell wall

What is the difference between gram positive and gram negative cell walls?

Gram positive are single layer cell walls whereas gram negative have an additional membrane surrounding the cell wall.

What are the steps to the Gram Stain method?

Primary stain (crystal violet), flood with iodine (all cells remain purple), decolorization agent (gram -ve cells lose their color), counterstain (+ve cells purple, -ve cells pink)

What are the phases of the microbial growth curve?

lag, exponential, stationary, and death phase, and long-term stationary

What is the lag phase?

The stage at which the bacteria is not dividing

What is the exponential phase?

The bacteria divide at their maximum rate

What is the stationary phase?

The rate of cell growth matches the rate of cell death

What environment do halophiles prefer?

Salty

What environment do osmophiles prefer?

Sugary

What environmental factors affect bacterial growth?

Solution concentration/osmosis, pH, temperature, oxygen concentration,