Test Two Review: Research Methods and Measurement

Comprehensive vocabulary review flashcards covering variables, measurement scales, research designs, validity, reliability, observation methods, and sampling techniques for Test Two Review.

Participant/Subject Variable

A characteristic or individual difference that participants bring with them to a study which cannot be randomly assigned or manipulated.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated or categorized by the researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome variable that is measured to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable.

Extraneous Variable

Any variable other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable or affect the study's results.

Nominal Scale

A measurement scale that classifies data into distinct, qualitative categories with no inherent numerical order or ranking.

Ordinal Scale

A measurement scale that categorizes and ranks observations in order of magnitude, though the intervals between ranks are not necessarily equal.

Interval Scale

A measurement scale where the distance between consecutive points is equal and meaningful, but there is no absolute or true zero point.

Ratio Scale

A measurement scale featuring equal intervals between values and an absolute, meaningful zero point indicating the complete absence of the variable.

Random Assignment

A procedure used in experimental research where participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any condition, helping control for extraneous variables.

Temporal Precedence

A fundamental criterion for establishing a cause-and-effect relationship, requiring that the cause occurs before the effect in time.

Covaration

A necessary condition for causation requiring that changes in the suspected cause systematically accompany changes in the observed effect.

Alternative Explanation

A competing potential cause for an observed relationship that must be eliminated to establish internal validity and demonstrate cause and effect.

Bidirectionality

A challenge in non-experimental and correlational designs where it cannot be determined whether variable A causes variable B or variable B causes variable A.

Confounds

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that vary systematically alongside the independent variable, obscuring true relationships and undermining internal validity.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where higher scores on one variable correspond with higher scores on the other, and lower scores correspond with lower scores.

Negative Correlation

An inverse relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other.

Curvilinear Relationship

A relationship between two variables where the direction of association changes across different levels of the variables, forming a curved pattern rather than a straight line.

Experimental Method

A research design with the strengths of demonstrating cause and effect and controlling extraneous variables, but with the weaknesses of lower external validity and being unrealistic.

Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in a real-world setting characterized by high external validity, but limited by an inability to control for external variables and an inability to make causal statements.

Quasi-experiments

A research method utilizing natural groups (variables which you cannot manipulate), which has no random assignment, no manipulated IV, and cannot draw causal conclusions.

Construct Validity

An evaluation of whether an operational definition is a valid way to measure or manipulate a specific variable.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study can accurately draw cause-and-effect conclusions without interference from extraneous variables or confounds.

External Validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized beyond the specific sample, setting, or experimental conditions to real-world contexts.

Predictive Validity

A subtype of construct validity assessing whether a measure can successfully predict future behavior.

Concurrent Validity

A subtype of construct validity assessing whether a measure can predict another behavior measured at the same time.

Face Validity

A judgment of whether a measurement procedure superficially appears or looks like it is assessing the intended construct.

Convergent Validity

A form of construct validity evaluating whether a measure can predict scores on another measure assessing the same construct.

Divergent Validity

A form of construct validity evaluating whether a measure can be clearly distinguished from measures assessing different constructs.

Reliability

The consistency and stability of a measurement tool across repeated administrations.

True Score

The actual, genuine score or underlying level of an attribute that an individual possesses, separate from any error introduced during measurement.

Measurement Error

The discrepancy or difference between an individual's observed score on a measure and their true score.

Test-Retest Reliability

An assessment of stability determined by administering the same measure to the same person two times.

Internal Consistency

An assessment of reliability evaluating how consistently items within the same measure assess the underlying construct, commonly tested via split-half methods or Cronbach's alpha.

Interrater Reliability (IRR)

The extent of agreement between different raters or observers, calculated as: $\text{IRR} = \frac{\# \text{ agree}}{\# \text{ of opportunities for agreement}}$

Naturalistic Observation

Observational research conducted in a natural public setting without intervention; faces challenges including experimenter bias and the amount of time it takes.

Systematic Observation

An observational research approach where specific behaviors are set up to occur and categorized using a predefined coding system.

Reactivity

A change in a participant's natural behavior that occurs because they are aware they are being watched or observed.

Case Study

A non-experimental research method involving an intensive, in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or unique situation.

Archival Research

A non-experimental research method that involves analyzing existing public records, historical documents, or pre-existing datasets.

Content Analysis

A non-experimental systematic analysis technique used to quantify and examine specific words, concepts, or themes within written, visual, or recorded communications.

Bipolar Scale

A rating scale used in survey research that spans between two contrasting or opposite extreme endpoints.

Focus Group Interview

A qualitative interview method conducted with a small, guided group of participants to gather diverse perspectives on a specific topic.

Random Sampling

A probability sampling method where every individual member of the population has an equal likelihood of being selected for the sample.

Stratified Random Sampling

A probability sampling procedure where a population is divided into distinct subgroups and participants are randomly sampled from each subgroup.

Cluster Sampling

A probability sampling method where researchers identify existing natural groupings or clusters within a population and randomly sample entire clusters.

Haphazard Sampling (Convenience)

A non-probability sampling method where individuals are chosen based entirely on ease of availability and accessibility to the researcher.

Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where researchers intentionally select individuals who meet specific, predefined criteria or characteristics.

Quota Sampling

A non-probability sampling method where participants are chosen non-randomly until predefined proportions of specific subgroups within the sample are fulfilled.